Gaps in knowledge and research needs for Arctic marine systems
This is Section 9.7 of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
Lead Author: Harald Loeng; Contributing Authors: Keith Brander, Eddy Carmack, Stanislav Denisenko, Ken Drinkwater, Bogi Hansen, Kit Kovacs, Pat Livingston, Fiona McLaughlin, Egil Sakshaug; Consulting Authors: Richard Bellerby, Howard Browman,Tore Furevik, Jacqueline M. Grebmeier, Eystein Jansen, Steingrimur Jónsson, Lis Lindal Jørgensen, Svend-Aage Malmberg, Svein Østerhus, Geir Ottersen, Koji Shimada
Many aspects of the interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean, and between climate and the marine ecosystem require a better understanding before the high levels of uncertainty associated with the predicted responses to climate change can be reduced. This can only be achieved through monitoring and research, some areas requiring long-term effort. For some processes, the ocean responds more or less passively to atmospheric change, while for others, changes in the ocean themselves drive atmospheric change. The ocean clearly has a very important role in climate change and variability. Large, long-lived arctic species are generally conservative in their life-history strategies, so changes, even dramatic changes, in juvenile survival may not be detected for long periods. Zooplankton, on the other hand, can respond within a year, while microorganisms generally exhibit large and rapid (within days or weeks) variations in population size, which can make it difficult to detect long-term trends in abundance. Long data series are thus essential for monitoring climate-induced change in arctic populations.
Although the ACIA-designated models all project that global climate change will occur, they are highly variable in their projections. This illustrates the great uncertainty underlying attempts to predict the impact of climate change on ecosystems. The models do not agree in terms of changes projected to wind fields, upon which ocean circulation and mixing processes depend. Thus, conclusions drawn in this chapter regarding future changes to marine systems are to a large extent based on extrapolations from the response of the ocean to past changes in atmospheric circulation. This is also the case for predictions regarding the effects of climate change on marine ecosystems. The present assessment has been able to provide some qualitative answers to questions raised regarding climate change, but has rarely been able to account for non-linear effects or multi-species interactions. Consequentially, reliable quantitative information on the response of the marine ecosystem to climate change is lacking.
Gaps in knowledge (9.7.1)
This section highlights some of the most important gaps in knowledge. These require urgent attention in order to make significant progress toward predicting and understanding the impacts of climate change on the marine environment. Each item includes an explanation as to why it is considered important.
Thermohaline circulation
Global circulation models provide an ambiguous assessment of potential changes to the THC. Most project a decrease in the strength of the THC; however, some recent models project little or no change. The THC is extremely important for the thermal budget of the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic.
Vertical stratification
Present climate models are unable to project future wind conditions, or to project how increased air temperatures, ice melt, and freshwater runoff will influence the vertical stability of the water column. The amount of vertical mixing that will occur is thus uncertain. Such information is required in order to project the effects of climate change on vertical heat and nutrient fluxes.
Ocean currents and transport pathways
It is necessary to understand the forces driving ocean circulation (wind, freshwater runoff, sea-ice freezing/ melting) and their variability. Ocean circulation is fundamental to the distribution of water masses and thus the distribution and mixture of species within the marine ecosystem.
Fronts
Open ocean fronts act as barriers to many marine organisms and are important feeding areas for higher trophic organisms. The relative importance of production at frontal regions compared to that at non-frontal regions has not been assessed for the Arctic, nor has the importance of fronts in terms of recruitment success for fish. Few climate models provide information on fronts and their variability, and even less have an adequate spatial resolution with which to address this issue.
Release of greenhouse gases and sequestration of carbon
Changes in the balance of GHGs (i.e., sources relative to sinks) are known to impact upon climate yet little is known about the arctic reservoir. This is made all the more important through positive feedback mechanisms. Carbon can be sequestered by physical and biological processes, and can be released during ocean mixing events and the thawing of permafrost; estimates of the rates and reservoir sizes need refining before they can be used in global circulation models. Changes in the extent and timing of sea-ice cover may affect trophic structure and thus the delivery of carbon to the sediment.
Species sensitivity to climate change
Little is known about the response times of species to climate change. For example, the rapid disappearance of sea ice may not allow for adaptive change by many arctic specialists and may possibly result in the disappearance of ice-dependent species. Microorganisms, zooplankton, and fish are all expected to exhibit shifts in distribution but the rates at which this will occur cannot be predicted at present.
Match/mismatch between predators and prey
The timing of reproduction for many species is related to that of their prey. How the timing and location of the production or spawning of most species might alter in response to climate change is unclear and so therefore is the extent of a potential match/mismatch between predators and their prey. Potentially, this could impact upon the whole arctic ecosystem.
Indirect and non-linear effects on biological processes
Biota are indirectly affected by atmospheric climate change through effects on their surrounding environment and on the food web. While the response of a species to change in one particular variable can often be surmised, although generally not quantified, its response to a collection of direct and indirect effects occurring simultaneously is considerably more difficult to address. This is further complicated by the nonlinearity of many processes.
Competition when/if new species are introduced into the ecosystem
Many arctic specialists have relatively narrow habitat and other niche requirements. Their likely response to a possible increase in competition from more opportunistic/generalist species in a warmer Arctic is unclear.
Gelatinous zooplankton
The abundance and variability of gelatinous zooplankton such as jellyfish has not been determined for most arctic regions. Although gelatinous zooplankton are known to be important as both predators and prey, and that they can represent a significant component of the biomass at times, their actual role within the ecosystem is unclear.
UV-B radiation exposure
Almost all existing evaluations of the effects of UV radiation are based on short-term studies. Studies are lacking on longer-term sub-lethal exposure to UV radiation, on both individual species and the overall productivity of marine ecosystems. UV-induced reductions in the nutritional quality of the food base could possibly pass through the food chain to fish, potentially reducing their growth rates as well as their nutritional condition.
Suggested research actions (9.7.2)
This section lists possible actions that could be undertaken to improve the knowledge and understanding of important processes related to climate change. To reduce the uncertainties in the predicted responses to climate change it is necessary for work to proceed on several fronts simultaneously. Research actions that are considered to be of highest priority are identified by an H.
Observational technologies
- Increase the application of recently developed technologies. Recent developments range from current meters, to satellite sensors, to monitors for marine mammals.
- Develop Remote Underwater Vehicles (RUVs) capable of working reliably under the sea ice for extended periods. This will reduce sampling costs and enable data collection in regions difficult to access using conventional sampling methods. Instrumentation on the RUVs should include means to sample the biota.
Surveying and monitoring
- Undertake surveys in those areas of the marine Arctic that are poorly mapped and whose resident biota have not been surveyed (H). These include surveys under the permanent ice cap in winter (perhaps using RUVs), and surveys to quantify the CH4 and carbon reserves in the arctic marine sediments.
- Continue and expand existing monitoring programs (H), both spatially and in breadth of measurement. New monitoring activities should be established in areas where they are presently lacking and these should be designed to address the effects of climate change. Issues to be addressed include the timing and amount of primary and secondary production, larval fish community composition, and reproductive success in marine mammals and seabirds. Key ecosystem components, including noncommercial species, must be included.
- Evaluate monitoring data through data analysis and modeling to determine their representativeness in space and time.
Data analysis and reconstruction
- Reconstruct the twentieth-century forcing fields over the arctic regions. Present reconstructions only extend back to around 1950. These reconstructions would help to model past climates.
- Establish an arctic database that contains all available physical and biological data. There should be open access to the database.
- Recover past physical and biological data from the Arctic. There are many data that are not presently available but could be recovered.
- Undertake analysis of past climate events to better understand the physical and biological responses to climate forcing. An example is the dramatic air temperature warming that took place from the 1920s to 1960 in the Arctic.
Field programs
- Undertake field studies to quantify climate-related processes (H). Examples of particular processes that require attention are: open ocean and shelf convection; forces driving the THC; physical and biological processes related to oceanic fronts; sequestrating of carbon in the ocean, including a quantification of air–ice–ocean exchange; long-term effects of UV-B radiation on biota; and, interactions between benthic, ice, and pelagic fauna.
Modelling
- Improved modeling of the ocean and sea ice in global circulation models (H). For example, how will the THC change? What are the consequences of change in the THC for the position and strength of ocean fronts, ocean current patterns, and vertical stratification?
- Development of reliable regional models for the Arctic (H). These are essential for determining impacts on the physics and biology of the marine Arctic.
- Strengthen the bio-physical modeling of the Arctic. Increased emphasis is required on coupling biological models with physical models in order to improve predictive capabilities.
Approaches
- Prioritize ecosystem-based research (H). Previous biological research programs were often targeted on single species. While these data are essential for input to larger-scale programs, the approach must be complemented by a more holistic ecosystem-based approach. Alternative concepts, methods, and modeling approaches should be explored. More effort should be placed on integrating multiple ecosystem components into modeling efforts concerning climate effects. Research on microbial communities, which may play a future role in a warmer Arctic, must be included.
Chapter 9: Marine Systems
9.1. Introduction (Gaps in knowledge and research needs for Arctic marine systems)
9.2. Physical oceanography
9.2.1. General features (Gaps in knowledge and research needs for Arctic marine systems)
9.2.2. Sea ice (Sea ice effect on marine systems in the Arctic)
9.2.3. Ocean processes of climatic importance
9.2.4. Variability in hydrographic properties and currents
9.2.5. Anticipated changes in physical conditions
9.3. Biota
9.3.1. General description of the Arctic biota community
9.3.2. Physical factors mediating ecological change
9.3.3. Past variability – interannual to decadal
9.3.4. Future change – processes and impacts on biota
9.4. Effects of changes in ultraviolet radiation
9.5. The carbon cycle and climate change
9.6. Key findings (Gaps in knowledge and research needs for Arctic marine systems)
9.7. Gaps in knowledge and research needs
