Marine Arctic

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Oceans and seas (main)


Published: February 9, 2010, 2:47 pm
Updated: August 21, 2012, 1:55 pm
Author: International Arctic Science Committee
Topic Editor: Howard Hanson
Topics:

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This is Section 2.3 of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Lead Author: Gordon McBean. Contributing Authors: Genrikh Alekseev, Deliang Chen, Eirik Førland, John Fyfe, Pavel Y. Groisman, Roger King, Humfrey Melling, Russell Vose, Paul H.Whitfield

Geography (2.3.1)

The Arctic Ocean forms the core of the marine Arctic. Its two principal basins, the Eurasian and Canada, are more than 4,000 m deep and almost completely landlocked (Fig. 2.4).Traditionally, the open boundary of the Arctic Ocean has been drawn along the Barents Shelfedge from Norway to Svalbard, across Fram Strait, down the western margin of the Canadian Archipelago and across Bering Strait[1]. Including the Canadian polar continental shelf (Canadian Archipelago), the total ocean area is 11.5 million km2, of which 60% is continental shelf. The shelf ranges in width from about 100 km in the Beaufort Sea (Alaska) to more than 1000 km in the Barents Sea and the Canadian Archipelago. Representative shelf depths off the coasts of Alaska and Siberia are 50 to 100 m, whereas those in the Barents Sea, East Greenland, and northern Canada are 200 to 500 m. A break in the shelf at Fram Strait provides the only deep (2600 m) connection to the global ocean.

Alternate routes to the Atlantic via the Canadian Archipelago and the Barents Sea block flow at depths below 220 m while the connection to the Pacific Ocean via Bering Strait is 45 m deep. About 70% of the Arctic Ocean is ice-covered throughout the year. Like most oceans, the Arctic is stratified, with deep waters that are denser than surface waters. In a stratified ocean, energy must be provided in order to mix surface and deep waters or to force deep-water flow over obstacles. For this reason, seabed topography is an important influence on ocean processes. Sections 6.3 (Marine Arctic) and 9.2.2 (Marine Arctic) contain detailed discussions of the Arctic Ocean and sea ice.

The term “marine Arctic” is used here to denote an area that includes Baffin, Hudson, and James Bays; the Labrador, Greenland, Iceland, Norwegian, and Bering Seas; and the Arctic Ocean.This area encompasses 3.5 million km2 of cold, low-salinity surface water and seasonal sea ice that are linked oceanographically to the Arctic Ocean and areas of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans that interact with them. In this region, the increase in density with depth is dominated by an increase in salinity as opposed to a decrease in temperature. The isolated areas of the northern marine cryosphere, namely the Okhotsk and Baltic Seas and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are not included in this chapter’s definition of “marine Arctic”.

Influence of temperate latitudes (2.3.2)

Climatic conditions in northern mid-latitudes influence the Arctic Ocean via marine and fluvial inflows as well as atmospheric exchange.The transport of water, heat, and salt by inflows are important elements of the global climate system.Warm inflows have the potential to melt sea ice provided that mixing processes can move heat to the surface.The dominant impediment to mixing is the vertical gradient in salinity at arctic temperatures. Therefore, the presence of sea ice in the marine Arctic is linked to the salt transport by inflows.

Approximately 11% of global river runoff is discharged to the Arctic Ocean, which represents only 5% of global ocean area and 1% of its volume[2]. In recognition of the dramatic effect of freshwater runoff on arctic surface water, the salt budget is commonly discussed in terms of freshwater, even for marine flows. Freshwater content in the marine context is the fictitious fraction of freshwater that dilutes seawater of standard salinity (e.g., 35) to create the salinity actually observed. For consistency with published literature, this chapter uses the convention of placing “freshwater” in quotes to distinguish the freshwater component of ocean water from the more conventional definition of freshwater.

Fig. 2.4. Topographic features of the marine Arctic (International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean).

The Arctic is clearly a shortcut for flow between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Fig. 2.5). A flow of 800000 m3/s (0.8 Sv) follows this shortcut to the Atlantic via Bering Strait, the channels of the Canadian Archipelago, and Fram Strait[3]. The flow is driven by higher sea level (~0.5 m) in the North Pacific (Stigebrandt, 1984).The difference in elevation reflects the lower average salinity of the North Pacific, maintained by an excess of precipitation over evaporation relative to the North Atlantic[4]. By returning excess precipitation to the Atlantic, the flow through the Arctic redresses a global-scale hydrologic imbalance created by present-day climate conditions. By transporting heat into the Arctic Ocean at depths less than 100 m, the flow influences the thickness of sea ice in the Canada Basin[5].

Fig. 2.5. Surface currents in the Arctic Ocean (based on AMAP[6]).

Much of the elevation change between the Pacific and the Atlantic occurs in Bering Strait. Operating like a weir in a stream, at its present depth and width the strait hydraulically limits flow to about 1 Sv[7]. Bering Strait is therefore a control point in the global hydrological cycle, which will allow more through-flow only with an increase in sea level. Similar hydraulic controls may operate with about 0.2 m of hydraulic head at flow constrictions within the Canadian Archipelago.The present “freshwater” flux through Bering Strait is about 0.07 Sv[8].

The Bering inflow of “freshwater” destined for the Atlantic is augmented from other sources, namely rivers draining into the Arctic Ocean, precipitation over ocean areas, and sea ice.The total influx to the marine Arctic from rivers is 0.18 Sv[9], about 2.5 times the “freshwater” flux of the Pacific inflow through Bering Strait.This estimate includes runoff from Greenland, the Canadian Archipelago, and the water-sheds of the Yukon River (carried through Bering Strait by the Alaskan Coastal Current), Hudson Bay, and James Bay.The average annual precipitation minus evaporation north of 60º N is 0.16 m/yr[10], corresponding to a freshwater flux of 0.049 Sv over marine areas.The combined rate of freshwater supply to the marine Arctic is 0.3 Sv.

Sea ice has a high “freshwater” content, since it loses 80% of its salt upon freezing and all but about 3% through subsequent thermal weathering. Although about 10% of sea-ice area is exported annually from the Arctic Ocean through Fram Strait, this is not a “freshwater” export from the marine Arctic, since the boundary is defined as the edge of sea ice at its maximum extent. Freezing segregates the upper ocean into brackish surface (ice) and salty deeper components that circulate differently within the marine Arctic. The melting of sea ice delivers freshwater to the surface of the ocean near the boundary of the marine Arctic. The flux of sea ice southward through Fram Strait is known to be about 0.09 Sv[11], but the southward flux of seasonal sea ice formed outside the Arctic Ocean in the Barents, Bering, and Labrador Seas; the Canadian Archipelago; Hudson and Baffin Bays; and East Greenland is not known.

The inflows to the marine Arctic maintain a large reservoir of “freshwater” (i.e., diluted seawater and brackish sea ice). Aagaard and Carmack[12] estimated the volume of “freshwater” stored within the Arctic Ocean to be 80,000 km3. A rough estimate suggests that there is an additional reservoir of approximately 50,000 km3 in the marginal seas described in the previous paragraph. The total reservoir of “freshwater” equals the accumulation of inflow over about 15 years.

The “freshwater” reservoir feeds two boundary currents that flow into the western North Atlantic – the East Greenland Current and the Labrador Current[13].The former enters the Greenland Sea via Fram Strait and the latter enters the Labrador Sea via Davis Strait, gathering a contribution from Hudson Bay via Hudson Strait.

Northbound streams of warm saline water, the Norwegian Atlantic Current and the West Greenland Current, counter the flow of low-salinity water toward the Atlantic.The Norwegian Atlantic Current branches into the West Spitzbergen Current and the Barents Sea through-flow.The former passes through Fram Strait with a temperature near 3 ºC and follows the continental slope eastward at depths of 200 to 800 m as the Fram Strait Branch[14]. The latter, cooled to less than 0 ºC and freshened by arctic surface waters, enters the Arctic Ocean at depths of 800 to 1500 m in the eastern Barents Sea[15]. The West Greenland Current carries 3 ºC seawater to northern Baffin Bay, where it mixes with arctic outflow and joins the south-flowing Baffin Current[16]. The inflows via the West Spitzbergen Current and Barents Sea through-flow are each about 1 to 2 Sv. The West Greenland Current transports less than 0.5 Sv. The associated fluxes of “freshwater” are small because salinity is close to 35. All fluxes vary appreciably from year to year.

The Fram Strait and Barents Sea branches are important marine sources of heat and the most significant sources of salt for arctic waters subjected to continuous dilution. The heat loss to the atmosphere in the ice-free northeastern Greenland Sea averages 200 W/m2[17].The average heat loss from the Arctic Ocean is 6 W/m2 of which 2 W/m2 comes from the Atlantic derived water. The impact of the incoming oceanic heat on sea ice is spatially non-uniform because the upperocean stability varies with the distribution of freshwater storage and ice cover.

Arctic Ocean (2.3.3)

The two branches of Atlantic inflow interleave at depths of 200 to 2000 m in the Arctic Ocean because of their high salinity, which makes them denser than surface waters despite their higher temperature. They circulate counter-clockwise around the basin in narrow (50 km) streams confined to the continental slope by the Coriolis Effect. The streams split where the slope meets mid-ocean ridges, creating branches that circulate counter-clockwise around the sub-basins[18]. The delivery of new Atlantic water to the interior of basins is slow (i.e., decades).

The boundary currents eventually return cooler, fresher, denser water to the North Atlantic via Fram Strait (Greenland side) and the Nordic Seas. The circuit time varies with routing.The role of arctic outflow in deep convection within the Greenland Sea and in the global thermohaline circulation is discussed in Section 9.2.3 (Marine Arctic). In the present climate, Atlantic-derived waters in the Arctic Ocean occur at depths too great to pass through the Canadian Archipelago.

Inflow from the North Pacific is less saline and circulates at a shallower depth than Atlantic inflow. It spreads north from Bering Strait to dominate the upper ocean of the western Arctic – the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, Canada Basin, and the Canadian Archipelago. An oceanic front presently located over the Alpha-Mendeleyev Ridge in Canada Basin separates the region of Pacific dominance from an “Atlantic domain” in the eastern hemisphere. A dramatic shift of this front from the Lomonosov Ridge in the early 1990s flooded a wide area of former Pacific dominance with warmer and less stratified Atlantic water[19].

The interplay of Atlantic and Pacific influence in the Arctic Ocean, the inflows of freshwater, and the seasonal cycle of freezing and melting create a layered structure in the Arctic Ocean[20]. These layers, from top to bottom, include snow; sea ice; surface sea water strongly diluted by precipitation, river discharge, and ice melt; warm summer intrusions from ice-free seas (principally the Bering Sea); cold winter intrusions from freezing seas; cool winter intrusions from ice-free seas (principally the Barents Sea); warm intrusions of the Fram Strait Branch; cool intrusions of the Barents Sea Branch; recently-formed deep waters; and relict deep waters.The presence and properties of each layer vary with location across the Arctic Ocean.

The cold and cool winter intrusions form the arctic cold halocline, an approximately isothermal zone wherein salinity increases with depth.The halocline isolates sea ice from warm deeper water because its density gradient inhibits mixing, and its weak temperature gradient minimizes the upward flux of heat.The cold halocline is a determining factor in the existence of year-round sea ice in the present climate. Areas of seasonal sea ice either lack a cold halocline (e.g., Baffin Bay, Labrador Shelf, Hudson Bay) or experience an intrusion of warm water in summer that overrides it (e.g., Chukchi Sea, coastal Beaufort Sea, eastern Canadian Archipelago).The stability of the cold halocline is determined by freshwater dynamics in the Arctic and its low temperature is maintained by cooling and ice formation in recurrent coastal polynyas[21]. Polynyas are regions within heavy winter sea ice where the ice is thinner because the oceanic heat flux is locally intense or because existing ice is carried away by wind or currents. The locations and effectiveness of these “ice factories” are functions of present-day wind patterns[22].

Sea ice (2.3.4)

Sea ice is the defining characteristic of the marine Arctic. It is the primary method through which the Arctic exerts leverage on global climate, by mediating the exchange of radiation, sensible heat, and momentum between the atmosphere and the ocean (see section 2.5). Changes to sea ice as a unique biological habitat are in the forefront of climate change impacts in the marine Arctic.

The two primary forms of sea ice are seasonal (or first-year) ice and perennial (or multi-year) ice. Seasonal or first-year ice is in its first winter of growth or first summer of melt. Its thickness in level floes ranges from a few tenths of a meter near the southern margin of the marine cryosphere to 2.5 m in the high Arctic at the end of winter. Some first-year ice survives the summer and becomes multi-year ice.This ice develops its distinctive hummocky appearance through thermal weathering, becoming harder and almost salt-free over several years. In the present climate, old multi-year ice floes without ridges are about 3 m thick at the end of winter.

The area of sea ice decreases from roughly 15 million km2 in March to 7 million km2 in September, as much of the first-year ice melts during the summer[23]. The area of multi-year sea ice, mostly over the Arctic Ocean basins, the East Siberian Sea, and the Canadian polar shelf, is about 5 million km2[24]. A transpolar drift carries sea ice from the Siberian shelves to the Barents Sea and Fram Strait. It merges on its eastern side with clockwise circulation of sea ice within Canada Basin. On average, 10% of arctic sea ice exits through Fram Strait each year. Section 6.3 provides a full discussion of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean.

Sea ice also leaves the Arctic via the Canadian Archipelago. Joined by seasonal sea ice in Baffin Bay, it drifts south along the Labrador coast to reach Newfoundland in March. An ice edge is established in this location where the supply of sea ice from the north balances the loss by melt in warm ocean waters. Sea-ice production in the source region in winter is enhanced within a polynya (the North Water) formed by the persistent southward drift of ice. Similar “conveyor belt” sea-ice regimes also exist in the Barents and Bering Seas, where northern regions of growth export ice to temperate waters.

First-year floes fracture easily under the forces generated by storm winds. Leads form where ice floes separate under tension, exposing new ocean surface to rapid freezing.Where the pack is compressed, the floes buckle and break into blocks that pile into ridges up to 30 m thick. Near open water, notably in the Labrador, Greenland, and Barents Seas, waves are an additional cause of ridging. Because of ridging and rafting, the average thickness of first-year sea ice is typically twice that achievable by freezing processes alone[25]. Heavily deformed multi-year floes near the Canadian Archipelago can average more than 10 m thick.

Information on the thickness of northern sea ice is scarce.Weekly records of land-fast ice thickness obtained from drilling are available for coastal locations around the Arctic (Canada and Russia) for the 1940s through the present[26]. Within the Arctic Ocean, there have been occasional surveys of sea ice since 1958, measured with sonar on nuclear submarines[27]. In Fram Strait and the Beaufort Sea, data have been acquired continuously since 1990 from sonar operated from moorings[28]. The average thickness of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean is about 3 m, and the thickest ice (about 6 m) is found along the shores of northern Canada and Greenland[29]. There is little information about the thickness of the seasonal sea ice that covers more than half the marine Arctic.

Land-fast ice (or fast ice) is immobilized for up to 10 months each year by coastal geometry or by grounded ice ridges (stamukhi).There are a few hundred meters of land-fast ice along all arctic coastlines in winter. In the present climate, ice ridges ground to form stamukhi in depths of up to 30 m, as the pack ice is repeatedly crushed against the fast ice by storm winds. In many areas, stamukhi stabilize sea ice for tens of kilometers from shore.Within the Canadian Archipelago in late winter, land-fast ice bridges channels up to 200 km wide and covers an area of 1 million km2. Some of this ice is trapped for decades as multi-year land-fast ice[30]. The remobilization of land-fast ice in summer is poorly understood. Deterioration through melting, flooding by runoff at the coast, winds, and tides are contributing factors.

Many potential impacts of climate change will be mediated through land-fast ice. It protects unstable coastlines and coastal communities from wave damage, flooding by surges, and ice ride-up. It offers safe, fast routes for travel and hunting. It creates unique and necessary habitat for northern species (e.g., ringed seal (Phoca hispida) birth lairs) and brackish under-ice migration corridors for fish. It blocks channels, facilitating the formation of polynyas important to northern ecosystems in some areas, and impeding navigation in others (e.g., the Northwest Passage).

Chapter 2: Arctic Climate - Past and Present

2.1 Introduction (Marine Arctic)
2.2 Arctic atmosphere
2.3 Marine Arctic
2.4 Terrestrial Water Balance in the Arctic
2.5 Influence of the Arctic on global climate
2.6 Arctic climate variability in the twentieth century
2.7 Arctic climate variability prior to 100 years BP
2.8 Summary and key findings of ACIA on Arctic Climate - Past and Present

References

Citation

Committee, I. (2012). Marine Arctic. Retrieved from http://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Marine_Arctic
  1. ↑ Aagaard, K. and L.K. Coachman, 1968a.The East Greenland Current north of Denmark Strait, I. Arctic, 21:181–200.
  2. ↑ Shiklomanov, I.A., A.I. Shiklomanov, R.B. Lammers, B.J. Peterson and C.J.Vörösmarty, 2000.The dynamics of river water inflow to the Arctic Ocean. In: E.L. Lewis, E.P. Jones, P. Lemke,T.D. Prowse and P.Wadhams (eds.).The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean, pp. 281–296. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  3. ↑ Melling, H., 2000. Exchanges of freshwater through the shallow straits of the North American Arctic. In: E.L. Lewis, E.P. Jones, P. Lemke,T.D. Prowse and P.Wadhams (eds.).The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean. Proceedings of a NATO Advanced Research Workshop,Tallinn, Estonia,April 1998, pp. 479–502. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  4. ↑ Wijffels, S.E., R.W. Schmitt, H.L. Bryden and A. Stigebrandt, 1992. Transport of freshwater by the oceans. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 22:155–162.
  5. ↑ Macdonald, R.W., F.A. McLaughlin and E.C. Carmack, 2002. Fresh water and its sources during the SHEBA drift in the Canada Basin of the Arctic Ocean. Deep-Sea Research I, 49:1769–1785.
  6. ↑ AMAP, 1998.AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Oslo, Norway, xii+859 pp.
  7. ↑ Overland, J.E. and A.T. Roach, 1987. Northward flow in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. Journal of Geophysical Research, 92:7097–7105.
  8. ↑ Aagaard, K. and E.C. Carmack, 1989.The role of sea ice and other fresh water in the Arctic circulation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94(C10):14485–14498.Fedorova, Z.P. and Z.S.Yankina, 1964.The passage of Pacific Ocean water through the Bering Strait into the Chukchi Sea. Deep-Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts, 11:427–434.
  9. ↑ Shiklomanov, I.A., A.I. Shiklomanov, R.B. Lammers, B.J. Peterson and C.J.Vörösmarty, 2000.The dynamics of river water inflow to the Arctic Ocean. In: E.L. Lewis, E.P. Jones, P. Lemke,T.D. Prowse and P.Wadhams (eds.).The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean, pp. 281–296. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  10. ↑ Barry, R.G. and M.C. Serreze, 2000. Atmospheric components of the Arctic Ocean freshwater balance and their interannual variability. In: E.L. Lewis, E.P. Jones, P. Lemke,T.D. Prowse and P.Wadhams (eds.).The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean, pp. 345–351. NATO Science Series, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  11. ↑ Vinje,T., 2001. Fram Strait ice fluxes and atmospheric circulation: 1950–2000. Journal of Climate, 14:3508–3517.
  12. ↑ Aagaard, K. and E.C. Carmack, 1989.The role of sea ice and other fresh water in the Arctic circulation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94(C10):14485–14498.
  13. ↑ (Aagaard and Coachman, 1968a, Op. cit.Aagaard, K. and L.K. Coachman, 1968b.The East Greenland Current north of Denmark Strait, II. Arctic, 21:267–290.
  14. ↑ Gorshkov, S.G. (ed.), 1980. Atlas of the Oceans. Arctic Ocean. USSR Ministry of Defense,Voenno-Morskoy Flot., Moscow, 199pp.
  15. ↑ Schauer, U., B. Rudels, E.P. Jones, L.G. Anderson, R.D. Muench, G. Bjork, J.H. Swift,V. Ivanov and A.-M. Larsson, 2002. Confluence and redistribution of Atlantic Water in the Nansen,Amundsen and Makarov basins. Annales Geophysicae, 20:257–273.
  16. ↑ Melling, H.,Y. Gratton and G. Ingram, 2001. Ocean circulation within the North Water Polynya of Baffin Bay. Atmosphere-Ocean, 39(3):301–325.
  17. ↑ Khrol,V.P. (ed.), 1992. Atlas of the Energy Budget of the Northern Polar Region. Gidrometeoizdat, St. Petersburg, 52pp.
  18. ↑ Rudels, B., E.P. Jones, L.G. Anderson and G. Kattner, 1994. On the intermediate depth waters of the Arctic Ocean. In: O.M. Johannessen, R.D. Muench and J.E. Overland (eds.).The Polar Oceans and their Role in Shaping the Global Environment. Geophysical Monograph Series, 85:33–46.American Geophysical Union.
  19. ↑ Carmack, E.C., R.W. Macdonald, R.G. Perkin, F.A. McLaughlin and R.J. Pearson, 1995. Evidence for warming of Atlantic water in the southern Canadian Basin of the Arctic Ocean: results from the Larsen-93 expedition. Geophysical Research Letters, 22(9):1061–1064.
  20. ↑ Treshnikov, A.F., 1959. Surface waters in the Arctic Basin. Problemy Arktiki, 7:5–14.
  21. ↑ Cavalieri, D.J. and S. Martin, 1994.The contribution of Alaskan, Siberian and Canadian coastal polynyas to the cold halocline layer of the Arctic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99(C9):18343–18362.;Melling, 1993; Melling and Lewis, 1982; Rudels et al., 1996)
  22. ↑ Winsor, P. and G. Björk, 2000. Polynya activity in the Arctic Ocean from 1958–1997. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105(C4):8789–8803.
  23. ↑ Cavalieri, D.J., P. Gloersen, C.L. Parkinson, J.C. Comiso and H.J. Zwally, 1997. Observed hemispheric asymmetry in global sea ice changes. Science, 278:1104–1106.
  24. ↑ Johannessen, O.M., E. Shalina and M. Miles, 1999. Satellite evidence for an Arctic sea ice cover in transformation. Science, 286:1937–1939.
  25. ↑ Melling, H. and D.A. Riedel, 1996. Development of seasonal pack ice in the Beaufort Sea during the winter of 1991–92: A view from below. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101(C5):11975–11992.
  26. ↑ Melling, H., 2002. Sea ice of the northern Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107(C11):3181, doi:10.1029/2001JC001102;Polyakov, I.V., G.V. Alekseev, R.V. Bekryaev, U.S. Bhatt, R. Colony, M.A. Johnson,V.P. Karklin, D. Walsh and A.V. Yulin, 2003a. Long-term ice variability in Arctic marginal seas. Journal of Climate, 16(12):2078–2085.
  27. ↑ Rothrock, D.A.,Y.Yu and G.A. Maykut, 1999.Thinning of the Arctic seaice cover. Geophysical Research Letters, 26:3469–3472;Wadhams, P., 2001. Sea ice thinning in the Nansen Basin and Greenland Sea. Second Wadati Conference on Global Change and the Polar Climate, March 7–9, 2001,Tsukuba, Japan. Extended Abstracts, pp. 17–21;Winsor, P., 2001. Arctic sea ice thickness remained constant during the 1990s. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(6):1039–1041.
  28. ↑ Melling, H., 1993.The formation of a haline shelf front in an ice-covered arctic sea. Continental Shelf Research, 13:1123–1147;Melling, H. and R.M. Moore, 1995. Modification of halocline source waters during freezing on the Beaufort Sea shelf: Evidence from oxygen isotopes and dissolved nutrients. Continental Shelf Research, 15(1):81–113;Melling, H. and D.A. Riedel, 1996. Development of seasonal pack ice in the Beaufort Sea during the winter of 1991–92: A view from below.Journal of Geophysical Research, 101(C5):11975–11992.Vinje,T., N. Nordlund and Å. Kvambekk, 1998. Monitoring ice thickness in Fram Strait. Journal of Geophysical Research, 103(C5):10437– 10450.
  29. ↑ Bourke, R.H. and R.P. Garrett, 1987. Sea ice thickness distribution in the Arctic Ocean. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 13:259–280.
  30. ↑ Reimnitz, E., H. Eicken and T. Martin, 1995. Multiyear fast ice along the Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia. Arctic, 48(4):359–367.
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