Humboldt penguin
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The Humboldt penguin (scientific name: Spheniscus humboldti) is one of seventeen species of flightless birds in the family of penguins. It is one of four "Banded penguins" in the genus Spheniscus which also includes the Black-footed, Megallanic, and Galapagos penguins.
 Source Ond?ej Zicha/BioLib/Encyclopedia of Life |
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Conservation Status  |
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Scientific Classification Kingdom: Animalia (Amimals) |
Like all penguins, the Humboldt penguin is characterized by its erect posture, stiff wings (flippers), excellent swimming ability, awkward movement out of water, and coloring. The black back and white front, make penguins difficult to see when swimming, blending against the sea from above and the sky from below.
Contents
Physical Description
Humboldt penguins, named after the cold current of water running from the Antarctic to the equator along the west coast of South America (itself named after the German naturalist Friedrich Humboldt), are a medium-sized penguin. They have proportionately large heads, black backs and tails, and a black band across the chest that runs down the body beneath the flippers to the black feet. The face is also black, but separated from the head and neck by a white border. The strong bill is black with a white band near the tip and the lower mandible has a pink fleshy-coloured base extending to the front of the eyes. Females are slightly smaller that the males but are otherwise similar. Juvenile birds are predominantly slate gray across the head and back, white at the front, and lack the bold double stripe of the adults.
The feet are webbed and serve as a rudder. There are also claws at the end of the toes for climbing. The feathers are in two layers. The top layer is flat and overlaps the second layer to stop the wind and water from penetrating to the body. The second down layer is for insulation. The wings evolved into flippers for flying through the water. The bones are solid and act as a ballast while diving. The body is in the shape of a streamlined torpedo covered by the short waterproof feathers. They are able to swim swiftly through the water by the aid of hard flippers or wings. Spheniscus humboldti is also called the Peruvian penguin. They are usually between 38 to 45 centimeters (18 to 15 inches) in height and weigh about 4 kg (9 pounds).
Reproduction
These penguins can be found in their breeding colonies throughout the year although the main breeding seasons are from March to April and September to October, depending on the location. The most abundant breeding happens around the availability of food and of nesting sites.
One male breeds with one female during the mating season. Once a mate is acquired the pair initiates copulations after displays of behavior.
The male arrives at the nesting area a few days before the female to prepare the nesting site. The birds dig burrows into the sand or guano cliffs, or find small crevices in which to lay the eggs. Two eggs are laid over a period of two to four days, incubation taking between 40 and 42 days, with both adult birds sharing nest duties. The major causes of egg loss are from flooding of nests during ocean storms, accidental breakage, and nest desertion and predation by gulls. Chicks poke a small hole through the egg then chip the shell off. This can take up to three days. The chicks usually hatch two days apart and are fed by both adults once they have acquired their first thick downy coats.
Chicks rarely leave their nest scrape until they are fledged at about 12 weeks. They then fend for themselves along the coast for several months before returning to establish their own nests, often within the same colony where they were reared. Chicks require attentive parents. They depend on the parents for survival between hatching and growing waterproof feathers. Once a chick has done this it can enter the water and become independent.
Humboldt penguins reach maturity and begin breeding at about two to three years of age.
Humboldt penguins exploit the cold waters off the South American west coast for food. The Humboldt Current flows northwards from Antarctica, and provides a rich harvest of fish, particularly anchovies, but the birds also feed on other fish species, krill and squid. Although they can reach depths of 150 meters, the birds rarely descend deeper than 60 meters.
Lifespan/Longevity
The average life span is 15 to 20 years for Humboldt penguins and there is a high mortality rate among the young. These penguins have been popular exhibits in zoos for many years and have been known to live for up to 30 years in captivity.
Behavior
The feathers must be groomed to prevent water infiltration as maintaining a high degree of air insulation is important. Before their early feeding in the morning, Humboldt penguins preen. This requires gathering oil from the preening gland located in the rump where the tail originates. The oil is applied to the feathers and edges of the flippers. They will also preen each other. In colder weather, indivuals tend to huddle is done to minimize heat loss. Humboldt penguins, however, can get hot through physical activities. Stream-lining feathers reduce the volume of air between the skin and the edge of the feathers and reduces the layer of air that serves as insulation. Molting takes place sometime in July to September and it only last about ten days
Distribution
This species is found along the coasts of Peru and Chile within the reaches of the Humboldt Current. These regions are temperate in climate. Some birds have been recorded as vagrants northwards off Columbia. There are also isolated colonies further to the south on the Punihuil Islands.
Habitat
Humboldt penguins breed in large colonies. They spend most of their time at sea and are seen on land or rocky near shore islands less frequently. Humboldt penguins nest on rocky coasts and islands with suitable topography for constructing nest burrows. On land Humboldt penguins lives in burrows composed of soil and rock and sometimes grasses. These nests are created using their wings and feet to push and mold a nest.
Predation
Humboldt penguins can swim up to 30 miles per hour and are very agile when swimming. This is their only defense against predators. When in the water they can be eaten by leopard seals, fur seals, sea lions, sharks, and killer whales. On land foxes, snakes, and introduced predators like cats and dogs can prey on the eggs and chicks. Humboldt penguins get entangled in fishing nets as well.
Food Habits
Humboldt penguins are in-shore feeders; they forage for small fish and crustaceans. They circle around the prey and attack from the side swallowing it head first. The mouth and tongue have backward pointed spines to hold fish. El Nino storms destroy large regions of nesting areas by causing rough surf that washes away nests. The affects on the temperature of the sea is an increase which can reduce the food supply.
Conservation Status
Following a series of disastrous breeding years, which included two El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, a population and habitat viability survey was carried out in 1998 on the Humboldt penguin. This concluded that, using figures for current breeding trends and estimating a world population of between 3,300 and 12,000 breeding pairs, the species was likely to become extinct within the next century. Legislation to assist the recovery of the Humboldt penguin has been passed in Chile, including a 30 year moratorium on killing or capturing the birds, and protection of the four principal breeding colonies. In Peru, the major colonies are also protected and the extraction of guano is managed by government.Further proposed conservation targets to save this species include the creation of marine nature reserves around the main breeding grounds, greater care over the extraction of guano, reducing the fish harvests during ENSO events and setting up 'awareness' programs to limit the hunting of penguins and accidental entanglement (by-catch) in fishing nets.
Classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List 2003. Listed on Appendix I of CITES and on Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS or Bonn Convention).
In 1981 the U.S. Department of Interior declared Humboldt penguins endangered. Today Humboldt penguins are still used illegally.
Threats
The principal risks to Humboldt penguins come from human over-harvesting of the fish stocks, especially anchovies, and exploiting the birds' guano beds, the mineral-rich guano being used as fertilizer. Removal of the guano deprives the birds from constructing nest burrows and leaves the eggs and chicks vulnerable to weather and predators.On the mainland nesting sites, wild dogs take eggs, chicks and even adult birds. Natural predators on land include foxes and caracaras (a large native hawk), whilst in the water the penguins fall prey to fur seals, sharks and whales. A more alarming trend over recent decades has been the effects of El Nino-related events. This is known to affect penguin numbers in two ways; by displacing the Humboldt Current with warmer, less food-rich water, and raising severe storms that can wash out the nesting colonies. There are also cases of birds being drowned in fishing nests and they are constantly at risk from marine pollution.
Economic Importance for Humans
Humans collect the eggs of Humboldt penguins. In the nineteenth century penguin skins were used to make caps, slippers, and purses. The feathers were used for clothing decorations. Extraction of oil from the penguins fat layers was economically important; the oil was used for lighting, tanning leather, and fuel. Humboldt penguin guano had a value as nitrogen rich fertilizer.
References
- Spheniscus humboldti Meyen 1834 Encyclopedia of Life (accessed March 9, 2009)
- F.A.Bisby, Y.R.Roskov, T.M.Orrell, D.Nicolson, L.E.Paglinawan , N.Bailly, P.M.Kirk, T.Bourgoin and G.Baillargeon eds. 2009. Species 2000 & ITIS Catalogue of Life: 2009 Annual Checklist. , Species 2000: Reading, UK.
- Spheniscus humboldti, Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2008. The Animal Diversity Web (accessed March 9, 2009)
- Spheniscus humboldti, BirdLife International ](accessed March 9, 2009)
- International Penguin Conservation (accessed March 9, 2009)
- WoRMS, World Registry of Marine Species
- IUCN Red List (September, 2007)
- Global Register of Migratory Species (March, 2008)
- ARKive
