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Passion fruit
Scientific name:
Passiflora edulis (purple passion fruit) / P. edulis var. flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit)
Order/Family:
Violales: Passifloraceae
Common names:
Maracuya
Pests and Diseases:
Aphids
Broad or yellow tea mite
Brown spot
Bugs
Fruit flies
Fusarium wilt
Leafmining flies (leafminers)
Mealybugs
Phytophthora blight
Root-knot nematodes
Septoria spot
Spider mites
Thrips
Woodiness potyvirus
Brown spot, Septoria spot, Phytophthora blight, Woodiness potyvirus, Bugs, Broad or yellow tea mite
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Aphids (Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae)
Aphids damage plants by sucking plant sap causing curling, wrinkling or cupping of infested leaves, giving plants a deformed shape. They spread viruses and excrete honeydew, which coat the plants and leads to growth of sooty mould, which can diminish the photosynthetic capacity of plants. Aphids are usually controlled by natural enemies if they have not been disturbed for instance by the use of broad-spectrum pesticides.
- Plant the crop in well prepared, fertile land, but do avoid applying nitrogenous fertiliser, as this will promote new growth, which makes the plants juicy and attractive to aphids.
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© Magnus Gammelgaard
The broad mite or yellow tea mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus)
It is the most important mite pest of passion fruit in Kenya. Broad mites are tiny (0.1-0.2 mm long) and cannot be seen with the naked eye, and are even difficult to detect with a hand lens. An attack by the broad mites can be detected by the symptoms of damage.
Their feeding produces discolouration, necrosis of tissues and deformation. Initial attack occurs on stems of terminal shoots and young terminal leaves. Attacked young leaves are stunted, deformed (slender, twisted or crumpled), fail to elongate and finally may wilt and dry. Stems of terminal shoots may become slightly swollen, roughened or russeted. As a result the growth of the plant is affected and flower production reduced causing considerably yield reduction. A bronzed dusty appearance may occur on affected plant parts. Attacked fruits become deformed and show white to tan or brown scars on the skin. This damage usually does not affect the internal quality of fruits but affect their market value. Severely attacked fruits may fall. Symptoms remain for a long period of time after control.
- Broad mites are attacked by predacious mites. Phytoseiulus persimilis is not very much attracted to broad mites. Amblyseius spp. are better predators of broad mites, in particular A. californicus is used for control of broad mites in different parts of the world.
- Broad mites can be effectively controlled with sulphur sprays. However, sulphur is toxic to predatory mites and can have phytotoxic effects on young leaves and shoots at high sulphur dosages and when applied during hot weather.
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© A.M. Varela, icipe
Brown spot (Alternaria passiflorae)
The most important disease worldwide is brown spot on leaves, vines and fruits. Symptoms are brown spots, up to 10 mm diameter, on the leaves, often extending along the veins and drying out in the centre. On the stems, spots are up to 30 mm long, and when they occur at the leaf axils may kill the vine, resulting in dieback. On the fruit, the spots are light brown, round and sunken; they often merge, covering large areas, and produce red-brown spore masses. Spores, produced on the leaf, stem and fruit, are dispersed by wind-blown rain. Warm, moist weather favours disease development. (EcoPort)
- Yellow passion fruit and its hybrids are more tolerant to this disease.
- Field sanitation (collection and disposal of fallen diseased fruits, leaves and vines).
- Pruning vines to reduce density and thereby reducing humidity within the crop. It also facilitate better air circulation, light and spray penetration and cover.
- Timely sprays with copper based fungicides. During humid weather, when the vines are growing rapidly, reduce the intervals between spray applications to 2 or 3 weeks to ensure that new growth is adequately protected.
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© A. A. Seif, icipe
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Brown spot…
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Brown spot
Bugs
Several species of sucking bugs feed on passion fruit. The most important are:
The green stinkbug (Nezara viridula)
The brown stinkbug (Boerias maculata)
Coreid bugs such as the giant coreid bug or tip wilter (Anoplocnemis curvipes) and the leaf footed plant bug (Leptoglossus membranaceus).
Bugs suck sap from the growing tips or developing fruits. The bugs pierce the terminal buds, which eventually wilt and die back. Young plants may be killed if the attack is severe. The punctured young fruits develop localised hardened spots that remain on the fruit reducing their market value.
- In small orchard bugs can be hand picked and destroyed.
- Watering and irrigation discourage bugs.
- Old crops or sprouting stumps left in the field provide refuges for bugs so they should be destroyed or dig into the soil.
- Growing strong smelling plants such as garlic and onion near the crop is reported to reduce infestations.
- Spraying plants with a soapy solution helps to wash off young bugs.
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© A.M.Varela, icipe
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Tip wilter
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Stinkbug d…
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Green stin…
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Leaf foote…
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Bug damage
Fruit flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae and Ceratitis capitata)
Fruit flies that feed on passion fruit in Africa include the melon fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae) and the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata).
Pierced young fruit shrivels and falls; later injuries cause damage that lowers the market value of the fruit. However, the incidence of fruit flies on passion fruit is low, and usually of not economic importance. So control may not be necessary.
- Collect and destroy all fallen fruits at least twice a week during the fruit season.
- Do not put collected damaged fruits into compost heaps. Instead, burn them or bury them at least 50 cm deep, so that the fruit flies cannot reach the soil surface.
- Remove fruits with dimples and those that ooze clear sap. This method is more laborious than picking the rotten fruits from the ground, but it is also more effective.
- Whenever possible, wrap fruit in newspaper or paper bags to prevent fruit flies from laying eggs on the fruit. This has to be done well before the fruit matures.
- Pick overripe fruits, as they attract fruit flies.
- Physical methods include fruit fly traps and fruit bagging, see on fruit-fly datasheet
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© R. C. Copeland, icipe
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae)
Fusarium wilt (also called collar rot) symptoms consist of yellowing of leaves, the collar region of affected plant at soil level turns brownish and vertically cracks and vines wilt followed by a complete collapse of the plant. On dissection of infected stem, vascular tissues show brown discolouration.
- Affected parts should be removed and burned. Snap off the affected parts or remove the affected plant manually.
- Do not cut tissue and then use the knife on healthy plants.
- Keep the base of the plant clear of grass and weeds, which favour fungal growth.
- Grafting to wilt-resistant yellow passion fruit rootstocks (e.g. P. caerula) is the most practical way of control.
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© A. M. Varela, icipe
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Fusarium w…
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Fusarium w…
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Fusarium w…
Leafmining flies (Lyriomyza spp)
Feeding and egg laying by leafmining flies cause stippling of leaves. This can kill seedlings and in older plants allows entry of disease-causing microorganisms. Feeding by maggots causes mining (tunnelling) of leaves reducing the productive leaf area. Heavily attacked leaves may drop off, and may lead to yield losses.
- Control by natural enemies is important.
- Ploughing can help in exposing pupae to desiccation and natural enemies.
- Neem products are effective for controlling leafminers.
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© A.M. Varela
Mealybugs (Planococcus citri and P. kenya)
Mealybugs infest fruits and foliage. They can be serious pests in the warm season, if natural enemies, which usually control them, are destroyed by spraying with pesticides.
They are 3-5 mm long, soft, elongate oval and somewhat flattened
- Conserve natural enemies. Mealybugs are usually controlled by a wide range of natural enemies. However, use of pesticides may kill these natural enemies leading to mealybug outbreaks.
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© Courtesy EcoPort (http://www.ecoport.org): John A. Weidhass
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Mealybugs
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Mealybugs
Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora nicotianae var. parastica)
Affected leaves are water-soaked and light-brown in colour. They fall readily, leading to defoliation of the vines. Affected areas of the stem are first purple and later brown above the graft union. They may completely girdle the stem causing wilting and collapse of the vine. Fruit symptoms comprise of large, water-soaked areas. Diseased fruits fall readily and in wet weather become covered with white, fungal growth.
Another strain of the fungus (Phytophthora cinnamoni) causes root rot. Yellow and purple varieties have different patterns of susceptibility. The yellow vine is susceptible to P. cinnamoni, and the purple vine is more susceptible to P. nicotianae. Both fungus strains attack both passion fruits and can cause root rot, wilt, damping off and leaf blight. Fungal spores are initially produced in wet soil beneath the vines and are splashed up to lower leaf canopy.
The disease is favoured by wet, windy weather.
- Good field sanitation.
- Pruning and keeping a grass sward under the vines to minimise spore splashed up to the lower leaves.
- Graft to resistant rootstocks (e.g. )P. caerula.
- The application of copper-based fungicides every 2-3 months during the wet season reduces disease incidence in areas where the disease is likely to be serious. Stem lesions may be painted with a copper fungicide. For more information on copper-based fungicides click here .
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© A. A. Seif, icipe
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Phytophtho…
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Phytophtho…
Nematodes
Amongst nematodes infesting passion fruit the root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica and M. arenaria), are the most serious pests. Characteristic symptoms of infestation by root-knot nematodes are formation of galls or knots on roots, yellowing of leaves, stunting and eventual wilting of the affected plants.
- Rotate with cassava, cereals, maize, Baby corn, sweet corn, sweet potato, onions, cabbages / kale, garlic or fodder grasses (e.g. Sudan grass).
- Use of tolerant rootstocks (e.g. P. caerula).
- Maintain high organic matter (farmyard manure / compost) in the soil.
- Incorporation of neem into planting at transplanting.
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© A. M. Varela, icipe
Septoria spot (Septoria passiflorae)
The disease attacks leaves, stems and fruits. Brown spots up to 2 mm with minute, black dots (fruiting bodies containing fungal spores) develop on leaf surface. Infected leaves fall readily leading to defoliation of vines. Similar spots may form on the stems albeit elongated. On fruits light-brown spots studded with minute black dots may be formed. The spots often join up to cover large areas of the fruit. Affected fruits ripen unevenly. Spores produced by black dots (fruiting bodies) are blown to adjacent vines during wet, windy weather thus further spreading the disease. The disease is spread by rain, dew and overhead irrigation. Warm moist weather favours disease development.
- Disease management measures for brown spot disease (see above) are equally applicable for Septoria spot.
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© A. M. Varela, icipe.
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Septoria s…
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Septoria l…
Spider mites (Tetranychus spp.)
Their feeding causes tiny yellow or white speckles, eventually leaves become yellowish and may drop, and may led to complete defoliation. Heavily infested plants may become stunted. A heavy infestation might also cause vine dieback and shrivelling and dropping of immature fruit.
- Field hygiene is important for the management of spider mites. Old crops or weeds infested with mites can cause infestation of new crop.
- Natural enemies such as predatory mites are important for control of spider mites.
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© Warwick HRI, University of Warwick.
Fruit flies (Bactrocera invadens and Ceratitis rosa)
Two species of fruit flies (Bactrocera invadens and Ceratitis rosa) attack banana in Kenya. Bactrocera invadens is a new species recently discovered in Africa. This fruit fly is reported attacking banana in Sudan and Kenya and it is a major threat since it leads to rejection of banana in the export market.
- Bagging of young banana fruits is an effective method, used in the Pacific and South East Asia for protection against fruit flies. (Personal communication S. Ekesi, AFFI, icipe; Ekesi and Billah, 2006). Click here for more information on bagging
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© M. K. Billah, icipe
Passion fruit woodiness potyvirus (PWV)
A number of virus diseases have been reported, notably the passion fruit woodiness potyvirus. Affected leaves show light and dark green mosaic pattern often with light yellow speckle. Sometimes small, yellow ring spots may develop on upper leaf surface. Infected fruits are small and misshapen with very hard rind and small pulp cavity. When affected fruit is cut, the inside rind tissue may have brown spots. Some strains of the virus cause cracking of affected fruits.
They are spread by aphids (Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae) grafting and pruning knives. The virus has a wide host range including bananas, cucurbits and many weeds.
- Use virus-free planting material.
- Disinfect pruning tools with household bleach.
- Use resistant hybrids, or rootstocks of yellow passion fruit.
- Remove diseased vines from the field.
- Do proper weeding.
- Avoid planting bananas and cucurbits near passion fruit fields.
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© A.A.Seif, icipe
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Woodiness …
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Woodiness …
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Woodiness …
General Information and Agronomic Aspects | Information on Diseases | |||
Information on Pests | Information Source Links |
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Geographical Distribution of Passion fruit in Africa |
The passion is a perennial climbing plant, which was introduced into Kenya in the 1920's. It is now a popular fruit for both domestic and export markets. From 2001 to 2005 export from Kenya of passion fruit was around 1000 tons per year, against a total production of around 30,000 tons yearly.
The fruit may be eaten fresh, but mostly the pulp is extracted and preserved by heating or cooling. The juice has a unique and intense flavour and high acidity, which makes it a natural concentrate. When sweetened and diluted it is very palatable and blends well with other fruit juices. Typical processed products are ice cream, sherbet, nectar, juices, concentrate, squash, jams and jellies. Passiflora plants are often cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flowers.
Passion flowers are widely employed by herbalists and natural health practitioners around the world today. They are mostly employed as a sedative, hypnotic (inducing sleep), nervine, anti-spasmodic and pain reliever.
Nutritive Value per 100 g of edible Portion
Raw or Cooked Passion fruit | Food Energy (Calories / %Daily Value*) |
Carbohydrates (g / %DV) |
Fat (g / %DV) |
Protein (g / %DV) |
Calcium (g / %DV) |
Phosphorus (mg / %DV) |
Iron (mg / %DV) |
Potassium (mg / %DV) |
Vitamin A (I.U) |
Vitamin C (I.U) |
Vitamin B 6 (I.U) |
Vitamin B 12 (I.U) |
Thiamine (mg / %DV) |
Riboflavin (mg / %DV) |
Ash (g / %DV) |
Purple Passion fruit raw | 97.0 / 5% | 23.4 / 8% | 0.7 / 1% | 2.2 / 4% | 12.0 / 1% | 68.0 / 7% | 1.6 / 9% | 348 / 10% | 1272 IU / 25% | 30.0 / 50% | 0.1 / 5% | 0.0 / 0% | 0.0 / 0% | 0.1 / 8% | 0.8 |
Purple Passion Fruit Juice raw | 51.0 / 3% | 13.6 / 5% | 0.1 / 0% | 0.4 / 1% | 4.0 / 0% | 13.0 / 1% | 0.2 / 1% | 278 / 8% | 717 IU / 14% | 29.8 / 50% | 0.1 / 3% | 0.0 / 0% | 0.0 / 0% | 0.1 / 8% | 0.3 |
Yellow Passion Fruit Juice raw | 60.0 / 3% | 14.5 / 5% | 0.2 / 0% | 0.7 / 1% | 4.0 / 0% | 25.0 / 2% | 0.4 / 2% | 278 / 8% | 943 IU / 19% | 18.2 / 30% | 0.1 / 3% | 0.0 / 0% | 0.0 / 0% | 0.1 / 6% | 0.5 |
The mature purple passion fruit tolerates light frosts and can be grown in the subtropics. Other varieties exist such as the so-called banana passion fruit growing in highland areas and often climb very tall trees. It is yellow at maturity but with soft velvety skin and pink flowers quite different from the commercial passion fruits. The banana passion fruit is mainly used in sweetened juices, as it is not usually very sweet on its own.
All varieties grow on a wide range of soils; but light to heavy sandy loams, of medium texture and at least 60 cm deep are most suitable. Heavy clay soils have to be drained and very sandy ones need heavy manuring. A pH of 5.5-7 is preferred. If the soil is too acidic, lime must be applied. Good drainage and aeration are essential to minimise the incidence of diseases such as collar rot.
Purple passion fruit, especially, grows well on as little as 900 mm rainfall in Africa, provided the rainfall is well distributed. The vines require sheltered locations without extreme temperatures: Optimum temperatures for the purple variety are between 18-25°C and for the yellow variety 25-30°C. Critical temperatures were established for hybrid cultivars in Australia as follows: below 20°C pollen does not germinate and at 18-15°C both growth and flowering are set back, whereas temperatures above 30-32°C stimulate growth at the expense of flowering and fruit set (CABI).
- Yellow rind and larger fruit
- More acid flavour
- Flowers are self-sterile - wind is ineffective because of the heaviness and stickiness of the pollen. They must be pollinated, and carpenter bees are the most efficient pollinators.
- More vigorous vine
- More tolerant of frost
- Resistant to nematodes and Fusarium wilt
- Brown seeds
Principal characteristics of the purple type:
- Purple rind and smaller fruit
- Sweet less acidic pulp richer in aroma and flavour and has a higher proportion of juice (35-38%)
- Can self pollinate but pollination is best under humid conditions
- Less vigorous vine
- If crossing yellow and purple types, it is necessary to use the purple parent as the seed parent because the flowers of the yellow are not receptive to the pollen of the purple, and an early blooming yellow must be utilised in order to have a sufficient overlapping period for pollen transfer. These crosses have some ability to withstand ?woodiness? virus.
- Black seeds
Variety Name | Origin and Characteristics |
Australian Purple or Nelly Kelly | Mild sweet flavour |
Common Purple | Naturalised Hawaiian variety. Thick skinned with small cavity |
Kapoho Selection | A cross of yellow Hawaiian strains. A heavy bearer but subject to brown rot. |
Black Knight | Purple cultivar |
Bountiful Beauty | Purple cultivar |
Sevcik Selection | Golden form of the yellow, a heavy bearer but subject to brown rot. |
University Round Selection | Hawaiian cross ? small fruit and not attractive but high juice yield. |
Nelly Kelly | Australian purple cultivar |
Waimanalo Selection | Consists of four strains, C-54, C-77, C-80 of similar size, shape and colour and C-39 as a pollinator. |
Nancy Garrison | Purple cultivar |
Yee Selection | Yellow, round, attractive and highly disease resistant. |
Ester | Very large purple fruit ? variety imported as large passion fruit. |
Purple Giant | Purple cultivar |
Kahuna | Very large medium purple fruit good for juicing and produces over a long season |
Grafting is often used to control diseases. Yellow passion fruit is used as resistant rootstock although other Passiflora species, in particular P. caerulea L., show much greater resistance to Phytophthora root rot and Fusarium collar rot. Moreover, P. caerulea is tolerant of root-knot nematodes and to exposure to -1.5°C; it can be propagated from leaf and stem cuttings and is compatible with P. edulis. Wedge and whip grafts on seedling rootstocks - sometimes on rooted cuttings - are used.
Within 5-7 weeks after transplanting, each plant will have up to four healthy laterals. From then on the vine grows very rapidly; the first flowers are produced 5-7 months after transplanting when the vine can be 10-15 m long.
Light is the essential factor for flowering and in passionfruit this is particularly true for floral development and fruit set. That is why training and pruning are important to ensure adequate exposure of the shoots. Depending on the climate there may be one to three harvest peaks (purple passionfruit) or a single, often very long harvest season (more common with the yellow passionfruit).
At planting the soil around the plants should be firmed down to establish good root/soil contact. In order to avoid fungal infection the grafting spot should not have any contact with the soil during and after planting. The seedling should then be irrigated to ensure quick rooting and establishment of the plant.
Regular fertilisation is necessary for optimum yields. Frequent sprays with compost tea or similar organic foliar feed should be applied starting from 1 month after planting and at least every 3 months after that. Mixing EM or BM with foliar sprays may prevent fungal attacks.
Pruning
Old unproductive shoots and dead wood must be removed. Also secondary shoots reaching the ground must be cut off about 5 cm above the ground. The laterals which bear fruit should be left to hang down freely from the wire and the entangling tendrils removed to allow free air and light penetration and reduce incidences of disease and pest epidemics. Disinfect with commercial detergent all equipment used for pruning regularly to avoid spread of viral diseases.
Intercropping
A wide range of vegetables and other crops can be intercropped with passion fruit. Intercropping with annuals is recommended; especially vegetables like beans, cabbages and tomatoes are agronomically suitable. Other recommended crops include potatoes, beetroots, Swiss chard, carrots, spinach, strawberries, eggplants, peppers, onions, leeks and head lettuce. However, cucurbits (cucumbers, pumpkin, and squashes) are not recommended due to the woodiness virus and fruit flies. Other crops that should not be intercropped with passion fruits are maize, cowpea, sorghum, okra, sweet potatoes and other creepers (GTZ, 1978). Intercropping can help in erosion control particularly when fed with good compost.
Rotation
To avoid build up of soil-borne diseases strict crop rotation should be practised (see suitable crops under intercropping). Passion fruits should not be grown for more than 2-3 years on the same plot.
Average yields amount to 10-15 t/ha per year for the purple and 20-25 t/ha per year for the yellow passionfruit. Much higher yields are possible; yields as high as 50 t/ha per year for purple passionfruit have been reported from Kenya.
Several species of sucking bugs feed on passion fruit. They suck and pierce leaves and young fruits; these are minor pests.
Fruit flies that feed on passionfruit include the melon fly (B. cucurbitae) and the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) and the Queensland fruit fly (B. tryoni). Pierced young fruit shrivels and falls; later injuries cause damage which lowers the grade. Spraying of biopesticides may be necessary if destruction of infested fruit and the use of baits do not adequately check the pest.
Mealybugs (Planococcus citri and P. kenyae) are usually controlled by their natural enemies.
The same to applies mites the red spider mites and the broad mites - which incidentally do much damage.
Fusarium wilt (also called collar rot) is caused by the soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae; the shoots wilt, followed by a complete collapse of the plant. Grafting to wilt-resistant yellow passionfruit rootstocks is the most practical way of control. Damping-off caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. can be a problem in nurseries and soils should be sterilised.
A number of virus diseases have been reported, notably passionfruit woodiness potyvirus (PWV). They are spread by aphids (Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae) and pruning knives. Other virus diseases are ringspot from Côte d'Ivoire, which is similar to PWV. The most practical control is to use clean planting material, clean pruning tools and resistant hybrids, or rootstocks of yellow passionfruit.
Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora nicotianae var. parastica) Affected leaves are water-soaked and light-brown in colour. They fall readily, leading to defoliation of the vines. Affected areas of the stem are first purple and later brown above the graft union. They may completely girdle the stem causing wilting and collapse of the vine. Fruit symptoms comprise of large, water-soaked areas. Diseased fruits fall readily and in wet weather become covered with white, fungal growth. | ![]()
Phytophthora blight
Phytophthora blight on passion fruit © A. A. Seif, icipe |
What to do:
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- AIC (2003). Fruits and Vegetables technical handbook, revised edition 2003. Agriculture Information Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
- CAB International (2006). Crop Protection Compendium, 2006 Edition. Wallingford, UK www.cabi.org
- Cooper, J., Dobson, H., Orchard, J. (2004). Passion Fruit Technical Itinerary. NRI - MU/PIP COLEACP, Brussels, Belgium.
- Economic Review of Agriculture 2006. Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi Kenya
- GTZ. (1978). Passion fruit growing in Kenya. A Recommendation for Smallholders. By German Agricultural team in Kenya.
- Griesbach, J. (1992). A Guide to Propagation and Cultivation of Fruit Trees in Kenya. Published by German Technical Cooperation of Germany (GTZ). ISBN: 3 88085 482 3.
- Integration of Tree Crops into Farming Systems Project (GTZ) & Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Kenya (2000). Tree Crop Propagation and Management - A Farmer Trainer Training Manual.
- Nutrition Data www.nutritiondata.com.