Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctic’s Biodiversity

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Published: February 9, 2010, 3:40 pm

Updated: August 1, 2012, 2:30 pm

Author: International Arctic Science Committee (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity)

Topics:

Conservation Biology (main) Biodiversity (main) Ecology (main)

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This is Section 10.1 of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
Lead Author: Michael B. Usher; Contributing Authors:Terry V. Callaghan, Grant Gilchrist, Bill Heal, Glenn P. Juday, Harald Loeng, Magdalena A. K. Muir, Pål Prestrud

Arctic peoples obtain their primary source of food and many of the materials used in clothing and building from the plant and animal species indigenous to the Arctic. These species range from mammals, fish, and birds, to berries and trees. However, the relationship between arctic people and those arctic species upon which they depend is not simple since each of these species is in turn dependent on a range of other arctic species and on the ecological processes operating within the arctic ecosystems. The biological diversity of the arctic environment is thus fundamental to the livelihoods of arctic peoples. Relevant information from indigenous peoples on arctic biodiversity is given in Chapter 3 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity).

The two major processes operating within ecosystems are photosynthesis and decomposition. Photosynthesis is the biochemical process whereby radiant energy from the sun is used to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water in the presence of chlorophyll. The energy fixed during photosynthesis is transferred from the primary producers through successive trophic levels by feeding and thus starts the food chains and food webs upon which all animal life depends. The organisms responsible are green plants – predominantly vascular plants in the terrestrial environment and algae in the freshwater and marine environments. The vascular plants, which include all flowering plants and ferns, are relatively well known taxonomically and feature in most books on the terrestrial environment of the Arctic. The non-vascular plants such as the mosses, liverworts, and lichens are less well-known taxonomically. The algae are taxonomically the least well-known plants of the Arctic; most are single-celled and many have a wide distribution range within the northern hemisphere.

Decomposition is the process whereby dead plant and animal material is broken down into simple organic and inorganic compounds, with a consequent release of energy. The carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO₂,and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are available for recycling. Decomposition processes are undertaken by an enormous range of organisms in soils and in aquatic sediments. These organisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, worms (especially enchytraeid worms), mollusks, insects (especially collembolans – springtails, and dipteran larvae – flies), crustaceans, and arachnids (especially mites). Species richness can be outstanding, with up to 2000 species within a square meter of grassland soil, which has led to soil being considered "the poor man’s tropical rain forest". However, many of the species in soils and sediments are unknown and undescribed, and their roles in the soil or sediment ecosystem, and in the processes of decomposition, are very poorly understood. This means that, within a changing climate, there are many questions about the decomposition process that need addressing.

In addition to photosynthesis and decomposition, there are many other important ecological processes operating within arctic ecosystems, for example: pollutant breakdown and detoxification, the purification of water, the release of oxygen, and nutrient recycling.

The major ecosystems of the Arctic, and their biological diversity, are addressed in detail in other chapters: Chapter 7 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) addresses the terrestrial environment, focusing on the tundra and polar desert ecosystems; Chapter 8 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) addresses freshwater ecosystems; and Chapter 9 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) addresses marine systems. This chapter focuses on the principles of conserving biodiversity, exploring the ecosystems, species, and genes in the Arctic, and the threats faced in a changing environment. The starting point for this discussion is the Convention on Biological Diversity, which states that its objectives are ". . . the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. . . "(Article 1).

The Convention on Biological Diversity defines "biological diversity" (often shortened to "biodiversity") as "the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are apart; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems"(Article 2). This definition clearly implies that biodiversity, and both its conservation and utilization, must be viewed at three levels – the level of the gene, the species, and the ecosystem (or habitat).

A changing climate can affect all three levels of biodiversity, and Chapters 7, 8 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity), and 9 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) address such issues. What the human population wishes to conserve, and the way that biodiversity conservation is practiced, will also be affected by a changing climate. The exploitation of the Arctic’s biodiversity resources, and the potential for their exploitation in the future, will equally be affected, and these topics are considered in greater detail in Chapter 11 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) (wildlife conservation and management), 12 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) (hunting, herding, fishing, and gathering by indigenous peoples), 13 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) (marine fisheries and aquaculture), and 14 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity) (forests and agriculture). The present chapter deals primarily with the first two tenets of the Convention on Biological Diversity, namely the conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use by the peoples of the Arctic. The first involves all aspects of the Arctic’s wildlife, from the smallest organisms (viruses, bacteria, and protozoa) to the largest plants and animals. The latter invokes the concept of stewardship: stewardship implies a sustainable form of management rather than the preservation of species and ecosystems without change. Climate change will result in changes in the productivity of ecosystems through photosynthesis and changes in the rates of decomposition. The balance between these two major processes will, to a large extent, determine the future nature of the arctic environment, the resources upon which arctic peoples (and visitors) depend, and whether the Arctic exacerbates climate change by releasing greater quantities of CO₂ to the atmosphere or helps to control climate change by acting as a sink for atmospheric CO₂. Biodiversity is therefore both affected by and affects climate change.

Table 10. 1. Details of the 25 national parks in Sweden.
	Extent (ha)
National parks in the Arctic
Abisko	7700
Muddus	50350
Padjelanta	198400
Pieljekaise	15340
Sarek	197000
Stora Sjöfallet	127800
Vadvetjåkka	2630
Average extent of the seven national parks in the Arctic	85603
Average extent of the 18 national parks south of the Arctic (range:27 to 10440 ha)	2446

The first two lines of approach to biodiversity conservation are often the development of lists of species and habitats to be given special protection (usually through legislation, and often on the basis of "Red Lists"), and the designation of protected areas where biodiversity conservation takes primacy over other forms of water and land use. By 1990, there had been significant achievements in establishing protected areas in the Arctic. Norway, Sweden, and Finland, for example, all had strict nature reserves (IUCN management category I), national parks (IUCN category II), and/or other nature reserves (IUCN category IV) within their arctic territories. In fact, the extent of these protected arctic areas is often considerably greater than the extent of equivalent protected areas further south. In Sweden, four of the seven national parks located within the Arctic are each larger than the total area of the 18 national parks south of the Arctic (Table 10. 1). One of these, Abisko, has as its aim "to preserve the high Nordic mountain landscape in its natural state" (Naturvårdverket, 1988), while others have similar aims to preserve landscapes and, by implication, the biodiversity that those landscapes contain.

In 1996, Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) developed a strategy, with an associated action plan, for a Circumpolar Protected Area Network. CAFF’s efforts, jointly with other international governmental and non-governmental organizations, and a range of local, regional, and national bodies, led to the establishment of nearly 400 protected areas (each greater than 10 km²) by 2000. The selection process for potential protected areas has been studied in many parts of the world and tends to be a blend of science (what is most desirable to protect?) and pragmatism (what is possible to protect?), and is not always easy even with a broad measure of agreement between the public and government.

Internationally, many criteria have been proposed as a basis for selecting sites for protection and designation as nature reserves and national parks. These were reviewed by Margules and Usher and further developed by Usher into a "popularity poll" reflecting frequency of use (Table 10. 2). Whereas some of these may be inappropriate in the Arctic (being better suited to the more fragmented environments of industrialized regions), the criteria ranked highest are all relevant to northern ecosystems. However, one of the difficulties of applying such criteria is that comprehensive habitat and species inventories may not exist, and so it is impossible to make meaningful comparisons or to determine the areas of greatest priority (see also Section 10. 5. 1 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity)).

Table 10. 2. Criteria used for selecting areas of land or water for protection and designation as nature reserves and national parks (Usher, 1986). The 26 criteria are ranked from those most frequently used (1) to those used only once in the review of 17 published sets of criteria (19=).
Rank	Criterion or criteria
1=	• Diversity of species • Diversity of habitats
3=	• Naturalness • Rarity of species • Rarity of habitats
6	• Extent of habitat
7	• Threat of human interference or disturbance
8=	• Educational value • Representativeness • Amenity value for local human population
11	• Scientific value
12	• Recorded history
13=	• Size of population of species of conservation concern • Typicalness
15=	• Uniqueness • Potential value • Ecological fragility • Position in an ecological or geographical unit
19=	• Archaeological interest • Availability • Importance for migratory wildfowl • Ease of management • Replaceability • Silvicultural gene bank • Successional stage • Wildlife reservoir potential

Table 10. 2 essentially contains "scientific" criteria, without the socio-economic criteria necessary for assessing existing and proposed land and water use plans. So although it might be possible to establish a range of assessments based on the scientific criteria listed in Table 10. 2, to gain a balanced perspective it is also important to establish plans for land and water use and the aspirations of people living in the area. Local economies depend on the biodiversity resources, and in balancing the various criteria it is essential to include long-term views and to ensure that demands for short-term gains do not predominate. The possible effects of climate change on biodiversity also need to be included in assessments, especially effects that will be experienced over the longer term.

Thus, there are many competing pressures on the ability of an individual, group, organization, or nation to conserve the biodiversity of the Arctic. These can be summarized in six points:

• all species native to the Arctic need to be conserved (i. e., neither allowed to become extinct nor driven to extinction by human activity);
• the genetic variation within these species needs to be conserved because this ensures the greatest chance of species’ adaptation to a changing environment and hence their long-term survival under a changing climate;
• the habitats of these species need to be conserved because each species is an integral part of a food web, being itself dependent on a set of other species and with a different set of species dependent upon it;
• human populations living in the Arctic are themselves an integral part of the Arctic’s biodiversity and food webs;
• non-native species and external human pressures may present challenges to arctic genes, species, and ecosystems, and hence risk assessments are a vital factor in managing new pressures on the arctic environment; and
• protected areas are not a universal panacea for the conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity, but should be viewed as land and water managed for the primacy of nature in a broader geographical area where other land- and-water-uses may have primacy.

CAFF summarized these points by stating that "The overall goal of Arctic nature conservation is to ensure that Arctic ecosystems and their biodiversity remain viable and vigorous for generations to come and, therefore, able to sustain human socio-economic and cultural needs". Balancing this duality of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use, CAFF developed five strategic issues (see Table 10. 3) and these are further developed throughout this chapter.

This chapter comprises four main sections. Section 10. 2 provides a brief introduction to the special features of arctic ecosystems and arctic species that justify conservation attention; possible threats to the Arctic’s biodiversity are considered in Section 10. 3 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity). Eight issues are then addressed in relation to the management and conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity (Section 10. 4 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity)). The chapter concludes with an exploration of some general principles concerning the conservation of the Arctic’s biodiversity, some of the implications, and a series of recommendations (Section 10. 5 (Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctics Biodiversity)).

Table 10.3. The five key strategic issues facing nature conservation in the Arctic (as quoted from CAFF,2002a).
Strategic issue	Overall goal
Conserving arctic species	... to maintain vigorous populations of Arctic plant and animal species
Conserving arctic ecosystems and habitats	... to maintain and enhance ecosystem integrity in the Arctic and to avoid habitat fragmentation and degradation
Assessing and monitoring arctic biodiversity	... to monitor status and trends in Arctic biodiversity as an integral part of assessing the overall state of the Arctic environment
Global issues	... to understand and minimize the impacts of global changes and activities on Arctic biodiversity
Engaging society	... to promote circumpolar and global awareness of Arctic biodiversity issues

Chapter 10: Principles of Conserving the Arctic’s Biodiversity
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Conservation of arctic ecosystems and species
10.2.1 Marine environments
10.2.2 Freshwater environments
10.2.3 Environments north of the treeline
10.2.4 Arctic boreal forest environments
10.2.5 Human-modified habitats
10.2.6 Conservation of arctic species
10.2.7 Incorporating traditional knowledge
10.2.8 Implications for biodiversity conservation
10.3 Human impacts on the biodiversity of the Arctic
10.4 Effects of climate change on the biodiversity of the Arctic
10.5 Managing biodiversity conservation in a changing environment

References

Citation

Committee, I. (2012). Introduction to the Principles of Conserving the Arctic’s Biodiversity. Retrieved from http://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Conserving_the_Arctic’s_Biodiversity