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Camels

Scientific name:

Camelus dromedarius

Order/Family:

Camelidae

Introduction				Herd Management
Camel breeds in Kenya				Camel Diseases
Breeding Practices				Information Source Links
Camel Nutrition

Introduction

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All camels in Kenya are dromedaries or one-humped Arabian camels. Without camels, human survival in dry environments would be much less sustainable. Camels are thought to have been introduced into East Africa by Somali speaking communities over 1000 years ago. These early pastoralists also had cattle, sheep and goats, but camels were better adapted to the dry climate and deteriorating rangeland of Northern Kenya. Historically camels arrived in the region only after deserts had been created by overgrazing and the following land degradation. Perhaps had the camels come before the desert would not have followed, as camels do not deteriorate lands at the same rates as other livestock. They have no hoofs to destroy the fragile soils and they are mainly browsers, meaning grasslands do not become depleted where camels have fed. Camels produce milk throughout the lactation period, whereas cows and small stock dry up during droughts and prolonged drys pells.

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Camel breeds in Kenya

The 3 main breeds of camel found in Kenya are Somali, Rendille/Gabbra and Turkana. These are kept by communities who bear the same names as those of the breed. There is a fourth breed of camel called Pakistani which was imported from Pakistani into Laikipia ranches in Kenya in the early 1990s. However, only a few pure Pakistan camels exist while crosses with Somali or Turkana breeds have since moved out of Laikipia to Samburu, East Pokot, Kajiado, Northern Tanzania, Mandera and Marsabit districts. Following is a description of these breeds;

Somali

Purpose:

Good for milk production as it can give 3 to 5 litres in a day
Milking the camel three times a day guarantees even more milk
Lactation length is 1 to 1.5 years

Body color:

Cream/brown

Mature body weight:

Ranges from 450 - 850 kg
First calving occurs between 4 - 5 years
Average standing height is 2 metres when mature

Feed requirements:

Heavy feeders requiring 8 to 12 hours of feeding in a day depending on feed availability
Are more comfortable feeding on shrubs because of their height

Advantages:

More milk and meat
Matures early

Disadvantages:

Cannot be reared in areas with rough terrain or rocky hillsides due to large size
Suffer more when feed availability is low

Within the Somali breed are four sub-types namely hoor, siftarr, Aidimo and Gelab. These differ in physical, production and adaptability characteristics. While hoor is the highest milk producing sub-type, it is the least hardy. Gelab on the other hand is the smallest in body size, least milk producing but most hardy.

Rendille/Gabbra

Milk yield:

1 - 3 litres per day
Lactation length of 1 to 1.5 years

Body color:

Cream or brown

Mature body weight:

300 - 550kg
First calving occurs between 5 - 6 years
Average standing height is 1.8 metres
Feed requirements: Less than Somali, requiring 8 - 10 hours of grazing

Advantages:

Does better under poor pasture conditions and rough terrain
Tolerate drought conditions better than Somali

Disadvantage:

Lower milk yield
Late maturity

Turkana

Milk yield:

Lower than Somali and Rendille/Gabbra that is, 1 to 2.5 litres/day
Lactation length of about 1 year

Body color:

Mainly grayish/dark

Mature body weight:

250 - 500kg

First calving:

Occurs between 5 and 6 years of age
Average standing height is 1.7 metres
Feed requirements is less than that of Gabbra/Rendille, requiring about 7 hours of grazing

Advantages:

Most hardy of all the breeds
Very agile and able to climb steep lava hills because of small body size
Least affected under situation of feed scarcity

Disadvantages:

Least milk yield and meat
Matures late

Pakistani

Purpose:

Of all the breeds, this is the best for milk production
Produces 4 - 7 litres of milk daily under ranch conditions

Body color:

Predominantly chocolate
Mature body weight: 400 - 700kg
Invariably drooping lower lip

Feed requirements:

It is a heavy feeder

Advantages:

High milk yield

Disadvantages:

Insufficiently tested on rough terrain
Less hardy

Note: Across all the breeds, males are generally heavier than females

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Breeding Practices

Characteristics of good breeding bull and female

Bull

High milk production capability
Fast growth rate
Good body conformation (tall, large body frame and well built), upright in standing, high ability to chase and mount females and
Adaptable to the environment (feed availability, terrain suitability etc)

Female

History of producing high milk volume
No history of diseases
Good adaptability to the environment
Good body conformation (slender body and large stomach)
Well developed and pronounced milk veins
Large and well set udder with four teats
Good mothering ability and no history of stillbirths, abortions etc

Recommended bull: female ratio

The camel keeper should maintain one dominant bull of between 6 to 12 years with one younger bull as his replacement
However, more than one breeding bull may be required depending on the herd size
A bull: female ratio of 1:50 is appropriate when sufficient forage is available

Sexual maturity

Females become active at 4 to 5 years of age and give birth when about 5 to 6 years old. Although sexual maturity varies with breed, it is very much dependent on management level in terms of nutrition and health
Males attain sexual maturity at around 5 years but begins to serve actively at around 6 years when their canine teeth are sufficiently developed for fighting

Breeding season

Camels are seasonal breeders
The breeding season coincides with the cool rainy period of the year
Release of the egg (ovulation) in females is initiated (induced) by mating. This means conception only take place during the second mating which should take place after 21 - 23 days when the heat cycle returns.

Mating

Mating among camels is a violent affair and can lead to injury in females
A breeding bull should not be allowed to run loose with a small herd of females especially when rutting since it can physically injure the females and the calves,
Sometimes the female does not voluntarily sit and she is forced to do so by the male who often chases her around, biting her neck, back of the hump, and pressing her down. This may result in severe wounds to the female. It is advisable to make the female sit before bringing the male to mate with her,
The mating process takes about 15 minutes
It is also advisable that rutting males are herded by strong, mature and mature people since they can easily hurt children.

Pregnancy diagnosis

A traditional method of telling if a camel is pregnant, is to stand near it and raise your hand, then check for the raising of the tail and passing of some urine. If it does so, this indicates pregnancy,
A pregnant camel will also raise her tail when a bull approaches her,
The camel begins to show this sign 2 - 4 weeks after conception.

Signs of rut in male

Loss of appetite and condition
Unusually aggressive and difficult to handle (Chases away all the other males and even humans)
Frequent urination and splashing urine on the back by flicking the tail,
Prolific secretion from the poll glands situated behind the ears and rubbing the secretion onto plants as a way of marking its territory
Protrusion of a soft palatal flap from the mouth (with air, in form of a pink balloon as shown in the picture below)
Making characteristic noises and continuously grinding their teeth with saliva flowing from the mouth
Rutting bulls should be separated as they may fight to death

Signs of heat in female camels

She may become restless
May show swelling of the vulva and mucous discharge
Frequent urination
Making characteristic noise
May have reduced milk yield
May sniff urine from other females
The heat is repeated after 20 - 25 days for females that fail to conceive

Recommended breeding practices and their advantages

1. Avoid inbreeding by:

Replacing the breeding bull at 12 years when its first daughters becomes sexually mature
Exchanging bulls with neighbors
Use of two or more breeding bulls

Advantages

Minimizes congenital/inherent problems e.g. deformities
Enhance calf growth
Reduce calf mortality

2. Use young bulls below 13 years
Advantages

Young bulls have high ability to follow and mount females
Young bulls come to rut faster after the dry season and serve for a longer period in any given breeding season
Young and active bulls ensures higher conception rates of females
Retired bulls can be castrated and fattened for meat or other uses

3. Use females of less or equal to 6 calvings
Advantages

These are young females who normally have good body condition
Produce more milk for the calf and humans and their calves show higher growth rate

4. To upgrade your camels through cross breeding, look for a bull with the traits you desire and not a female
Advantage

A bull propagates desired traits in a herd very fast as it has capacity to serve 50 dams in a breeding season while a female can only give birth to one calf at a time

Care of pregnant camels, a month before giving birth

Closely monitor the camels as this is the most critical stage
Graze the camels near settlement or boma as they may require some assistance
Avoid grazing such camels in areas with pot holes, gulleys, rocky areas, slippery grounds since such camels may easily fall down and severely injure themself
Do not allow the camels to wallow in the soil
Do not put such camels in sloppy bomas as it is difficult to stand on such a ground

Signs of labor

Enlargement of the udder
Sagging of the ligaments at the root of the tail
Restlessness including lying down and standing up
Loss of appetite
Make characteristic noise
Isolating themselves from other camels

Calving management

What the herder/helper* should do	Why
Separate the camel from the rest of the herd and keep it in the boma
Be near the camel
In case of difficult calving, pull out the calf gently	This is to avoid damage of the uterus or injuring the calf
Make the mother lie down to ensure that the calf is not dropped while the mother is standing	Dropping the calf while the mother is standing can injure the calf
Remove birth fluids on the calf body particularly around the nose	Removing fluids from the nose and body is meant to avoid suffocation of the calf and pneumonia due to cold and possible death since camels do not lick their calves
Treat the cut end of the umbilical cord with some iodine, strong salt solution or just tie it in a knot or with a string that is either boiled or disinfected with dettol or savlon	These measures prevents entry of bacteria or foreign bodies which may cause secondary infection
Put the calf in front of the mother until the mother makes some low groaning noise	Groaning normally indicates her acceptance of the calf
Assist the calf to suckle and if the mother refuses to suckle her calf which is especially common with first calvers, smear the mother with some birth fluids around the nostrils. If she still proves difficult, isolate and scare her so that she only see the calf around her. This helps in forcing her to accept the calf. In case of death of the mother, cover the foster mother with hide of the dead mother to enhance acceptance.	Early suckling (the first 3 to 6 hours) is very important because of colostrum** which gives the calf essential immunity to infections in the first few months of life
Note: If mother dies before two months post birth, the calf rarely survives. Must witness dropping of placenta although retention is very rare; can also be removed manually	Retained afterbirth in camels may lead to severe post-birth complications

* It is advisable to call an experienced herder, community based animal health worker (CBAHW) or veterinarian to assist in complicated birth
** The dense milk that animals produce for the first 2 to 3 days after birth

Additional calving management tips If the calf has breathing difficulties soon after birth, do the following;

Cold water poured over the chest and head has the effect of shock and makes the calf raise and shake the head
Massaging with two fingers from the eyes along the nose to the nostrils clears out the mucus
Irritation of the nostrils with a straw makes the calf sneeze and expel the mucus
Turn the calf upside down (for example by putting its rear legs across your shoulder and get someone to hold them there) with its head towards the ground and massage the chest moving down towards the head

Note: Do not reach into the mouth with your fingers!! This can cause an infection and diarrhea in the calf.

Calf Rearing

Management practice	How it should be done	Why
Colostrum feeding	Allow unlimited access of the calf to the antibodies, vitamins, proteins rich and easily digestible colostrum within the 1st 3 to 6 hours. If the dam does not produce milk, induce the let down by palpating the udder and the abdomen. In the absence of milk from the mother, feed the calf on milk from other camels. Note: Herders sometimes deny or give very little colostrum to the calves, claiming that excess colostrum causes diarrhea, especially among the second calvers . Research has shown that irregular feeding and bacterial infection causes the diarrhea and not the colostrum. Other causes includes worms and ingestion of dirt	Colostrum gives the calf passive immunity and washes the stomach The quality of colostrum depreciates with time Antibodies are proteins, and can only pass through the walls of the intestines in the first 24 hours after birth
Housing	Camel calves need to be protected against cold especially at night. The pen can be made with thick and strong bushes cut from the surrounding. The pen should be swept at least once a week to avoid accumulation of ecto- parasites	Over-exposure to cold breeze can cause pneumonia and death, a strongly built pen protect calves from predators while regular cleaning helps in control of ticks
Tick control	Ticks contribute significantly to the high camel calf mortality reported in previous studies. A camel keeper should thoroughly wash young calves with acaricides e.g. triatix once in two weeks or even shorter interval depending on the tick load	Ticks cause paralysis and eventual death of the calves if not controlled
Diarrhea management Note: Different camel keeping communities use different traditional methods to manage diarrhea. However, these methods are largely ineffective as evidenced by high mortality rates. Effective modern and traditional methods of managing diarrhea as explained under the 'how' column exist.	Method 1: Rehydration of the calf using a mixture of water, table salt and sugar/honey Take three table spoonfuls of sugar or honey and one and half table spoonfuls of table salt and mix with three litres of clean water Give a soda bottle (300mls) full of this solution through the mouth on four hourly intervals until the diarrhea stops. Method 2: Traditionally eggs from chickens which interact with camels is used Give one egg by the mouth daily to a calf with diarrhea until it stops Method 3: Use of conventional drugs Give sulphur based drugs e.g. S-dime tablets according to manufacturers instructions Note: The sick calf should continue suckling, be kept in a clean environment and separated from the healthy ones until it recovers	Diarrhea contributes significantly to the 12-60% camel calf mortality levels reported among camel herds in Kenya When a calf has diarrhea, it looses a lot of water that leads to death if not replenished. The honey-table salt-water solution has rehydrating and treatment effects The eggs of chicken which interacts with camels and feed on ticks and other flies from camels have been observed to have both treatment and preventive effects on the diarrhea These measures prevents spread of the diarrhea to other calves
Calf management in the first four months of growth	Let the calf run with its mother during the day for the first three months After the third month when the calf is able to graze actively, gradually reduce the milk allowance depending on the quantity and quality of forage available and its growth performance In case of death of the mother or calf rejection, bottle feeding is advised	This allows the calf adequate milk. Heavy milking for human consumption at this stage negatively affects calf growth rate hence delaying its reproductive and physical maturity Early separation contribute to calf diarrhea since such a calf stays hungry the whole day and when the mother returns home in the evening, it takes a lot of milk at one suckling. The milk tends to cramp the undeveloped stomach leading to diarrhea. Letting the calf accompany its mother during the day also triggers early rumination because of early access to forage and water
Management of the non suckling calves (weaners)	Gradually wean (dry) the calf from suckling Deworm at weaning Vaccinate the weaners for trypanosomosis Feed the weaners on good quality forage Gradually increase the watering interval Supplement with minerals Wash weaners for external parasites	Camel keepers wean the calves at an average age of one year. Under pastoral management, calves before weaning mostly graze around and are watered at home. However, after weaning the calves join the main herd that is normally subjected to long distance foraging and watering. This abrupt change in management contributes to stress which may be disastrous to the calf. The practices outlined here minimize the stress.

Additional methods of managing diarrhea in camel calves (this works in some cases with cattle calves, dose may need to be increased for camel calves)
Drench with Kaolin (about 2 handfuls in a soda bottle mixed with a bit of cud from the mothers mouth and filled with clean (preferably boiled and cooled) water. Drench at least twice per day until symptoms disappear.
Charcoal drench: Crush charcoal very finely. Put about 2 handfuls in a soda bottle, fill clean water and shake. Drench morning and evening.

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Camel Nutrition

The importance of good nutrition in camels

The importance of good nutrition in camels Nutrition of the camel is fundamental to growth, reproduction and production. Optimum nutrition is essential for it has a profound impact on fertility, foetal growth, birth weight and also the future milk yield. As is the case for humans, good nutrition implies that the camel must get sufficient proteins, energy, roughage, minerals and water.

Protein is important for growth and milk production
Energy enables camels to walk around in search of pastures and water
Roughage enhances feed intake and digestion
Minerals are important in reproduction, formation of bones, feed digestion and absorption and milk yield, among others
Water is useful in transportation of food, air and wastes through the body systems

Comparative studies between camels and other livestock show that the camel has lower food intake in relation to body weight than any other livestock species.

Feeding habits

Foraging camels spread over a large area thus minimizing pressure on a particular forage species and area i.e. low trampling and soil disturbance,
The cleft on the upper lip helps camels in diet selection i.e. removing leaves from stems and picking acacia pods from the ground,
On the average, protein content of diets selected by camels is higher than for other livestock,
The long legs and neck enable camels to browse up to 3 m above the ground, a height not reached by other livestock
Due to their specific forage preferences and feeding at higher levels, camels are rarely in direct competition with other animals (notably cattle and sheep) for grazing and therefore a combination of these species results to increased productivity per unit of land

Suitable camel feeds

Given the opportunity, camels prefer to feed on shrubs and trees (browsing). However, in the absence of browse forages they can comfortably live on herbs and annual grasses. The concept of planted forages is not applicable in the Kenya situation where camels are reared under extensive free range systems. What is practical is to manage the natural forages in a way that promotes growth of palatable and quality shrubs that camels prefer. Keeping a mixture of camels and small stock or cattle where possible helps in maintaining the required forage composition.

A camel requires 8-10 hours of grazing daily to be satisfied. This depends on breed, body size and feed availability
In an ideal situation, camels are able to select a high-quality diet that provides all the nutrients required by the body
Camels are also able to survive on low quality fibrous roughages. They adapt well to different diets and dietary conditions
During the dry season, when other forages are scarce, camels can browse on the green tips of trees (e.g. Acacia sp.) that other livestock species do not, enabling them to survive droughts,
It is worth noting that there are some plants that can poison camels e.g. Capparis tomentosa and Solanum spp and areas where such plants are concentrated should be avoided.

Some important range forage species for camels

	Growth form			Local Names
Scientific name		Somali	Rendille	Turkana	Samburu	Gabbra
Acacia tortilis	Tree	Abuk Abak	Dahar	Etir Ewoi	Ltepes	Dadacha
Acacia nilotica	Tree	Bili Madow	Gillorit	Ekalapelimet	Ilkiloriti	Burquqe
Indigofera spinosa	Dwarf shrub	Rufile Maratel	Khoro	Emakwi	Lkitagesi	Korategala Kiltipe
Salsola dendroides	Dwarf shrub	Darran-ad	Hadum	-	Aduung	Durte
Boscia coriacea	Shrub	Ghalangal Dakkiyah	Yoror	Erdung	Serichoi	Galgacha
Balanites aegyptiaca	Tree	Kullen Kidthi	Kulum	Eroronyit	Sarai Ilbulei	Badhan Baddana
Salvadora persica	Shrub	Adde Athei	Hayei	Esekon	Sokotei	Aadhe
Euphorbia tirucalli	Shrub	-	-	Elila	Loile	Anno
Cordia sinensis	Shrub	Mared Mareer	Gaer	Edome	Ilgoita	Madeera
Barleria Spp	Herb	Gamaadiis Odarol	Geidow Sucha	-	Lkurumbule Sucha	Maadek Shiisha
Blepharis linarifolia	Herb	Quarda Yumarook	Lemaruk Harja	-	Emarak	Kutumbule Baraata

Feed digestion

The camel ruminates, chewing cud mostly at night, but though there are similarities in stomach construction, the camel stomach has only 3 chambers with no clear distinction between omasum and abomasum. Studies show that camels digest cellulose better than other ruminants. Further, camels have lower metabolic rates than other livestock, helping them to utilize their feed very efficiently and minimize water intake.

Mineral requirements

Mineral deficiencies adverse affect productivity of camels
Camels are known to prefer grazing and browsing on salty plants, suggesting higher requirement for salts.
Pastoralists are aware that camels require salt and some make efforts to take their camels to naturally occurring salt sources.
Suggested salt allowances under normal dryland conditions range between 30 and 60 g/day. A camel working hard in the hot season may need as much as 140 g of salt daily.
However, research has shown that camels suffer specific mineral deficiencies due to complete lack or inadequate levels in the natural sources, which suggests need for properly formulated and balanced minerals for camels. One option is to buy industrial chemicals especially those containing phosphorus (dicalcium phosphate), calcium (calcium carbonate) copper, zinc, selenium, magnesium (copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, magnesium sulphate) that will supply key and commonly deficient elements and mix them with natural mineral licks or other livestock salt available in the market. The mixing ratio however needs to be guided by an expert as it depends on the difference between what the camels can get from the grazing resources and their daily requirements. Regular moving of camel herds to places with natural salts (water, licks or plant) for supplementation do help to some extent.

Water requirements

Compared to other livestock, the camel is the most efficient in water utilization in the body by being able to reabsorb most of the water in the intestines and kidney leading to dry feacal pellets and concentrated urine, avoiding water loss through evaporation, among others. Camels also have capacity to utilize metabolic water by recycling urea. Water requirements in camels depends on the water content of the forage and accessibility to water but is lower in relation to body weight than other livestock species . During wet periods, camels get sufficient water from the feed and may not require direct watering. However, during dry seasons and drought periods, camels require regular watering, the recommended interval being 5 to 8 days. Watering intervals longer than this leads to dehydration which interferes with the functioning of the body systems and may reduce productivity. Watering intervals during drought of up to 14 days have however been reported. Dehydration in camels could be tested by the skin elasticity. This is done by grabbing and pulling out the loose skin e.g. the neck or lower part of the abdomen and then you release. If the skin reverts back to it normal position quickly, it suggests that the animal may not require water. However, if the skin takes long to revert to its normal position, this suggests significant degree of dehydration.

Supplementary feeding in camels

Under normal circumstances camels, can get enough and quality diet from natural vegetation. This implies that in traditional extensive systems with enough browse and water, extra feeding may not be beneficial. However during periods of feed scarcity or under peri-urban production systems, supplementary feeding would certainly be beneficial to camels particularly the pregnant, lactating and calves.

Supplementation can be achieved through harvesting and storage of some feed material e.g. acacia pods especially for the settled households.
The nutritional quality of natural vegetation is highest at the time when vegetation is beginning to dry up and this would be the most appropriate harvesting time.
Grass hay, minerals supplements and concentrates like dairy cubes could be bought from the market and fed to camels. However, this may prove expensive and only affordable for a few high yielding breeds like Pakistani.

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Herd Management

Management differ among different camel keeping societies, but all try to keep a predominantly female herd. The camels are usually kept in thorny enclosures over night, where they can be inspected, milked and generally looked after and kept safe from predators.

Where camels are kept as part of a mixed herd, the watering intervals follow the other animals, but where camels are kept separately, watering intervals may be increased gradually up to 2 weeks, enabling camel herds look for browse from a very large distance from water sources.

Well fed camels, which are kept away from areas with biting flies and tsetse flies rarely become sick, but droughts, excessive rains, lack of browse and other debilitating factors can lead to diseases in camels.

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Camel Diseases

Symptoms and Treatment

Trypanosomiasis

Not all trypanosomiasis parasites are transmitted by the tsetse fly. Trypanosoma evansi (thryps) is a very serious camel parasite mostly spread by biting flies. The parasite replicates in camels, horses, dogs, cattle, water-buffaloes and elephants. Equines and dogs are susceptible and usually die from the infection. Cattle sheep, goats and antelopes often become infected and act as asymptomatic carriers.

Symptoms: Thryps affects camels of all ages, with a higher incidence of disease in sub-adult camels shortly after weaning. Many environmental and host factors have impact on the course of the disease such as other infections, nutritional status, age, pregnancy, previous exposure, etc. If the several of the following symptoms are present in an animal, it is wise to get it tested and if positive, get it treated:

Visible weight loss, the hump starts drooping
Lack of appetite
Swellings (oedema) may appear on feet, brisket, underbelly and eyelids
Fluctuating body temperature with initial peaks of fever up to 41°C
Shivering
Mild diarrhea
Different smell of urine
Abortion

Diagnosis: The best tool for diagnosing thryps in the field is a battery-operated mini centrifuge for testing the camels blood. Such equipment should be operated by a vet or other trained animal health officers.

Treatment: The best drug to combat thryps currently is Triquin. In order to calculate the correct dose the approximate weight of the sick camel must be known (see Bodyweight estimation).
NOTE: Triquin is only meant to treat camels. Do not use on any other animal. Examples are known of goats being injected with this drug and dying immediately.

Other important camel diseases are:

Skin Diseases of Camels

Camel Pox
Sarcoptic Mange
Ringworm
Ticks
Flies
Bacteriological skin infections
Abscesses of the skin and external lymph nodes

Gastrointestinal helminthes of camels

Roundworms
Tapeworms
Liver Flukes

List of Laboratories for analysis of camel diseases

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Marsabit; P.O Box 147-60500; Tel.+254 069 210 2040; Fax +254 069 210 2220
KARI, Trypanosomosis Research Centre; P.O. Box 362 - 00902 Kikuyu; Tel. +254 66 32960/4; Fax +254 66 32397; E-mail trccd@kari-trc.org, ketri2@bidii.com
KARI, National Veterinary Research Centre; P. O. Box 32 - 00902 Kikuyu; Tel. +254 066 32106/2, 32000, 32703; Fax +254 066 32450; E-mail vrckari@yahoo.com
Analabs, Kenya Limited; P. O. Box Nairobi

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Information Source Links

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