CS402: Computer Communications and Networks

2.2.3 The OSI reference model

Compared to the five layers reference model explained above, the OSI reference model defined in [X200] is divided in seven layers. The four lower layers are similar to the four lower layers described above. The OSI reference model refined the application layer by dividing it in three layers:

• the Session layer. The Session layer contains the protocols and mechanisms that are necessary to organize and to synchronize the dialogue and to manage the data exchange of presentation layer entities. While one of the main functions of the transport layer is to cope with the unreliability of the network layer, the session’s layer objective is to hide the possible failures of transport-level connections to the upper layer higher. For this, the Session Layer provides services that allow to establish a session-connection, to support orderly data exchange (including mechanisms that allow to recover from the abrupt release of an underlying transport connection), and to release the connection in an orderly manner.
• the Presentation layer was designed to cope with the different ways of representing information on computers. There are many differences in the way computer store information. Some computers store integers as 32 bits field, others use 64 bits field and the same problem arises with floating point number. For textual information, this is even more complex with the many different character codes that have been used 6 . The situation is even more complex when considering the exchange of structured information such as database records. To solve this problem, the Presentation layer contains provides for a common representation of the data transferred. The ASN.1 notation was designed for the Presentation layer and is still used today by some protocols.
• the Application layer that contains the mechanisms that do not fit in neither the Presentation nor the Session layer. The OSI Application layer was itself further divided in several generic service elements.

Note: Where are the missing layers in TCP/IP reference model?

The TCP/IP reference places the Presentation and the Session layers implicitly in the Application layer. The main motivations for simplifying the upper layers in the TCP/IP reference model were pragmatic. Most Internet applications started as prototypes that evolved and were later standardised. Many of these applications assumed that they would be used to exchange information written in American English and for which the 7 bits US-ASCII character code was sufficient. This was the case for email, but as we’ll see in the next chapter, email was able to evolve to support different character encodings. Some applications considered the different data representations explicitly. For example, ftp contained mechanisms to convert a file from one format to another and the HTML language was defined to represent web pages. On the other hand, many ISO specifications were developed by committees composed of people who did not all participate in actual implementations. ISO spent a lot of effort analysing the requirements and defining a solution that meets all of these requirements. Unfortunately, some of the specifications were so complex that it was difficult to implement them completely and the standardisation bodies defined recommended profiles that contained the implemented sets of options...

Figure 2.34: The seven layers of the OSI reference model

2.3 Organisation of the book

This document is organised according to the TCP/IP reference model and follows a top-down approach. Most of the classical networking textbooks chose a bottom-up approach, i.e. they first explained all the electrical and optical details of the physical layer then moved to the datalink layer. This approach worked well during the infancy of computer networks and until the late 1990s. At that time, most students were not users of computer networks and it was useful to explain computer networks by building the corresponding protocols from the simplest, in the physical layer, up to the application layer. Today, all students are active users of Internet applications, and starting to learn computer networking by looking at bits is not very motivating. Starting from [KuroseRoss09], many textbooks and teachers have chosen a top-down approach. This approach starts from applications such as email and web that students already know and explores the different layers, starting from the application layer. This approach works quite well with today’s students. The traditional bottom-up approach could in fact be considered as an engineering approach as it starts from the simple network that allows the exchange of bits, and explains how to combine different protocols and mechanisms to build the most complex applications. The top-down approach could on the other hand be considered as a scientific approach. Like biologists, it starts from an existing (man- built) system and explores it layer by layer.

Besides the top-down versus bottom-up organisation, computer networking books can either aim at having an in-depth coverage of a small number of topics, or at having a limited coverage of a wide range of topics. Covering a wide range of topics is interesting for introductory courses or for students who do not need a detailed knowledge of computer networks. It allows the students to learn a little about everything and then start from this basic knowledge later if they need to understand computer networking in more detail. This books chose to cover, in detail, a smaller number of topics than other textbooks. This is motivated by the fact that computer networks often need to be pushed to their limits. Understanding the details of the main networking protocols is important to be able to fully grasp how a network behaves or extend it to provide innovative services 7 .

The book is organised as follows: We first describe the application layer in chapter The application Layer. Given the large number of Internet-based applications, it is of course impossible to cover them all in detail. Instead we focus on three types of Internet-based applications. We first study the Domain Name System (DNS) and then explain some of the protocols involved in the exchange of electronic mail. The discussion of the application layer ends with a description of the key protocols of the world wide web.

All these applications rely on the transport layer that is explained in chapter The transport layer. This is a key layer in today’s networks as it contains all the mechanisms necessary to provide a reliable delivery of data over an unreliable network. We cover the transport layer by first developing a simple reliable transport layer protocol and then explain the details of the TCP and UDP protocols used in TCP/IP networks.

After the transport layer, we analyse the network layer in chapter The network layer. This is also a very important layer as it is responsible for the delivery of packets from any source to any destination through intermediate routers. In the network layer, we describe the two possible organisations of the network layer and the routing protocols based on link-state and distance vectors. Then we explain in detail the IPv4, IPv6, RIP, OSPF and BGP protocols that are actually used in today’s Internet.

The last chapter of the book is devoted to the datalink layer. In chapter The datalink layer and the Local Area Networks, we begin by explaining the principles of the datalink layers on point-to-point links. Then, we focus on the Local Area Networks. We first describe the Medium Access Control algorithms that allow multiple hosts to share one transmission medium. We consider both opportunistic and deterministic techniques. We then explain in detail two types of LANs that are important from a deployment viewpoint today : Ethernet and WiFi.

Source: Olivier Bonaventure, https://s3.amazonaws.com/saylordotorg-resources/wwwresources/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Computer-Networking-Principles-Bonaventure-1-30-31-OTC1.pdf
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