HIST362: Modern Revolutions

11a. Compare and contrast the revolutions studied in this course in terms of ideology, tactics, uses of violence, and social and economic outcomes

Based on what you have studied in this course, compare your responses to the following questions for the English, American, French, Russian, Chinese, and Iranian revolutions.

• What was the driving ideology behind each revolution?
• Describe the primary strategies, tactics, and use of violence the revolutionaries employed in each of these events?
• What were the main short-term and long-term social and economic consequences of each revolution?

The revolutions we have studied began with the Enlightenment ideas of natural rights and the process of modernization. Some revolutions, such as in the United States, were waged to banish British colonialism, promote democracy and the rights of all, and support capitalist ideas that required the protection of private property. In Britain, America, France, and Mexico, a growing middle class wanted to overthrow their respective monarchies, modernize their economies, and create a representative government.

Many of the revolutionaries enlisted the help of the peasant and working classes to protest the pervasive inequities and suffering that had been accepted practice for centuries. However, after they had achieved power, the leaders of the Soviet Union and China used brute force to collectivize agriculture and create a modern, industrialized economy, despite the famine and destruction that ensued.

In addition, many of the Mexican and Chinese revolutionaries had similar nationalist sentiments, rebelling against foreign intervention that had gone too far by depleting their national resources with an outsized role in their economic and political institutions. The religious leaders of the Iranian Revolution went a step further with their own national response to modernization which they saw to be anti-Muslim and anti-Iranian. They sought a wholesale return to their traditional, religious, orthodoxy.

All of these revolutions incorporated violence to one degree or another, with the exception of the Eastern European revolutions of 1989, which were surprisingly peaceful. However, revolution continues in many parts of the world. Recently, countries in North Africa and the Middle East have experienced the rebellions we call the Arab Spring, which have shown limited success in the short term, but may prove to be the impetus for future change. It is difficult to predict. However, we can assume that revolutions will continue to occur as long as people continue to try to perfect human society and experience.

11b. Apply theoretical models to revolutions studied in this course, and evaluate the relative merits of these models

• What common features can you identify among these revolutions?
• Explain the role of class conflict in revolution. How do the revolutionaries try to correct negative aspects of capitalism, such as with the ideal of redistributing wealth so peasants and workers also benefit?
• Why is promoting ideas of nationalism such a critical component of many revolutions?
• How do each of the revolutions promote the goal of political participation in the developing state?
• Do revolutions with more drastic and violent strategies have stronger legacy?

Review our discussion of revolution in Units 1 and 2 of this course.

Karl Marx believed that class conflict and changes in the modes of production cause revolution. In the rural countryside, areas that had been ruled by feudal lords who protected their serfs against foreign invasion, were replaced with commercialization of agriculture and the rise of peasant labor. These peasants came to rebel against the nobility to assume their own control over the land.

Meanwhile, in many large European cities, we see the rapid rise of industries built on the principles of capitalism and wage labor. Urban workers came to rebel against appalling living conditions, low wages, food shortages, and poverty. In Western Europe and the United States citizens also protested autocratic rule, excessive taxation, and the lack of certain freedoms and human rights. They supported privatization, modernization, democratic values, and individual freedoms. In Russia and China, the new revolutionary governments supported modernization and the communist principles of collectivization, mass industrialization, and support for the working class.

Review Summary Part I, World Revolutions by Thomas O'Brien (begin at 4:00).

11c. Describe how the revolutions studied in this course continue to shape the contemporary world

• Is revolution a good and inevitable part of society?
• Is the era of revolution over or are we still confront the risk of violent revolution?
• Describe some positive and negative effects of globalization.

Many believe revolutions represent a transformational and positive aspect of human history – they rectify societal problems, such as structural dysfunction, economic decline, failures in economic growth and development, oppression, and autocracy.

Thomas O'Brien explains that some argue that revolution is less likely today because globalization has created a global interlinked, unified, and integrated economic system. Capitalism, with its variations, has become the single global model and a decentralized, private sector is prevalent. The great chasm between communism and capitalism no longer exists, and there is a widespread acceptance of individual human rights, liberalism, and elected representative government.

On the other hand, others argue that the potential for revolution is greater than ever because capitalism has created ever-increasing disparities in society – between the wealthy and the poor. While many totalitarian regimes have crumbled, democracy and liberalism has not flourished in many parts of the world. For example, many governments, such as in Russia, China, Latin America, and Eastern Europe, still do not support open or representative government. Many countries have suffered great negative economic consequences from globalization and modernization efforts. Inequalities and economic failures have triggered violent reaction, social unrest, and revolutionary upheaval. We have seen a rise in radical nationalism, Islamic fundamentalism, and anti-western sentiment in many countries around the world. 

Review Summary Part II, World Revolutions by Thomas O'Brien (through 37:47).

Unit 11 Vocabulary

• Class conflict
• Capitalism
• Globalization
• Nationalism
• Political participation